Chapter 48 &50 Flashcards
the nervous system functions in _____________________ within the animal’s body
communication and cordination
_________________ are cells that transmit electrical messages from one part of the body to another
neurons
the nervous system is subdivided into
two divisions
- central nervous system
- peripheral nervous system
________________________ consists of brain and spinal cord
central nervous system CNS
_________________ consists of nerves that carry signals between CNS to rest of body
peripheral nervous system PNS
______________________ a bundle of neurons
nerves
___________________ percieve stimuli and generate electrical impulses in responce to them
sensory receptors
___________________ transmit sensory imput to brain and spinal cord
nerves
2 parts of sensory input
- sensory receptors
- nerves
the _____________ process and interprets the senesory imput and dictates an appropriate response
CNS
nerves transmit CNS instructions to effectors, ____________________.
AN __________________ arrive at the effector and triggers it to respond
muscles and glands
because sponges lack true tissue there is no __________________
nervous sytem
cnidarians possess a _________________
nerve net
_______________ a diffuse network of interconnected neurons extending throughout the body
nerve net
because flatworms are the first to exhibit bilateral symetry and its two ______________________
accompaning nervous system innovation
________________ aconcentration of nervous tissue at the anterior end of the body
cephalization
_______________ the presence of a central nervous system distinct from a peripheral nervous system
centralization
__________________ are the functional cells of nervous tissue receiving the transmitting electrical impulses
neurons
neurons contain a central cell body that houses the _____________________
nucleus and other organelles
multiple short branching process called ________________ extend off of the neuron’s cell body
dendrites
the dendrites _______________ incoming nerve impulses from neighboring neurons and pass them to the cell body
receive
a single long unbranched process celled an _________________ extends off the other side of the cell body
axon
an axon ____________ nerve impulses away from the cell body to a neighboring neuron or to an effector
sends
in addition to neurons nervous tissue contain _______________
glial cells
_____________ are smaller and more numberous than neurons
glial cells
______________ do not function in transmitting electrical signals. nstead they provide _____________ for neurons
glial cells
support
________________ are glial cells that attach neurons to capillaries, connecting the neurons to their nutrient supply
astrocyte
_____________________ wrap around the neurons axon , gaps exist between neighboring schwann cells or nodes , nerve impulses jump from node to node
schwann cells
the ___________________ is an insulating layer formed by the schwann cells
myelin sheath
__________ gaps exhisting between neighboring schwann cells
nodes
myelin sheath significantly ______________ of a nerve impulse alond the axon
speeds up the transmission
at rest a neuron has a _________________
potential energy
a neurons potential energy
neurons resting potential
a neurons resting potential is _____________________
-70 millivolts
a neurons ______________ contains proteins (pumps and channels) that regulate the passage of ions and maintain resting potential
plasma membrane
_____________ actively transport Na out of the neuron and K into the neuron
sodium potassium pump
there are only a few __________ channels but many ___________ channels
Na
K
_________ can flow easily but __________ cannot flow easiy
K
Na
the _________ of the neuron becomes less positive relative to the _________________
inside
outside
an electrical impulse tranveling along a neurons axon or dendrites is called an _______________
actions potential
___________ are generated when a neuron is resting potential is altered
actions potential
__________ is any facter that causes a change in the membrane voltage triggering an action potential
a stimulus
a neurons resting potential of _________ is maintained by ________________ and open channels
-70mv
sodium potassium
________________ are closed channels
Na and K channels
_________________ the stimulus opens a few NA gated channels. This allows a small amount of NA to enter into the neuron. if the strimulus is strong enough additional NA gated channels open allowing sufficient NA to enter into the neuron
stimulus is applies
_________________ the stimulus opens a few NA gated channels. This allows a small amount of NA to enter into the neuron. if the strimulus is strong enough additional NA gated channels open allowing sufficient NA to enter into the neuron
stimulus is applied
________________ once threshold is reach an action potential is generated. Many NA gated channels open and much more NA enters into the neuron. THe interior of the neuron now becomes positively charged relative to the exterior peaking at 35 mv
depolarization
depolarization is the interior of the neurons becoes positively charged relative to the exterior peaking at
35 MV
______________ peak membrane voltage results in the cosing NA gated channels so NA can not longer enter K gated channels now open and K rapidly exits the neuron. the interior of the neuron again becomes negatively charged relative to the interior
repolarization
a _________________ occurs because K gated channels close relatively slowly. once they close, ______________ is restored
undershoot in membrane voltage
resting potential
_______________ action potential is localized event at a specific location on the neurons plasma membrane
action potential
to function in communication ________________ must be passed along the length of the neurons axon or dendrites
action potential
an action potential _______________ stage influx of NA, causes an electrical change large enough to affect the adjacent region on a neuron’s plasma membrane
depolarization
the action potential stimulates _________________________ in the adjacent region resulting a new action potential
NA gated channels
action potential are propagated along the length of a ________________
neurons
action potentials are conducted in _____________ along a neuron
just one direction
action potential cannot travel backwards because ______________ is taking place in adjacent region
repolarization
Why neurons don not travel backwards _________________ cannot occur where _________ occurs
depolarization
repolarization
a _______________ is an action potential relay point between neighboring neurons
synapse
synapse occurs between ________________
neurons and muscles cells
synapse consists of
- synaptic terminal of sending neuron
- dendrite of a receiving neuron
- small space between them
_____________ are branched at the end of an axon
synaptic terminals
the space between neighboring neurons is called the _________________________
synaptic cleft
an action potential arriving at the synaptic terminal results in the release of ________________ into the synaptic cleft
neurotransmitters
__________________ are chemicals that bind to receptor proteins on the neighboring dendrites opening its ion channels and generating new action potential
neurotransmitters
nerves impulse therefore convert ____________________________________________________
from electrical to chemical and back to electrical
________________ are synthesized from amino acids
biogenic amines
neurotransmitters are small _________________ molecules
nitrogen containing
_______________ are structures that detect stimuli
sensory receptors
________________ are changes in the external or internal enviroment
stimuli
based on the type of stimuli to which they respond sensory organs can be classified into five general categories
- mechanoreceptors
- chemoreceptors
- electromagnetic receptors
- thermoreceptors
- pain receptors
receptors can be __________________
relatively simple
__________ dendrites of a single sensory neuron
receptors
receptors can be _______________________
very complex
__________ entire sense organs such as the eye
receptors
mechanoreceptors sense ___________________________ caused by stimuli such as touch, pressure, stretch, and sound
mechanoreceptors
hearing and equilibrium utilize ____________
mechanoreceptors
mechanoreceptors sense ___________________________ caused by stimuli such as touch, pressure, stretch, and sound
physical movement
taste and smell are ________________
mechanoreceptors
___________ in bats porpoises is an extrahuman mechanoreceptor sense
echolocation
taste and smell must be ________________ in order to be detected
dissolved insolution
the antennae of male silk worm moth have chemoreceptors that bind to ______________________
female pharamones
photoreceptors are electromagnetic receptors that detect ____________________
visible light
bees have photoreceptors that detect ____________________
ultra violet light
rattlesnakes have ____________ receptors that detect the body heat of prey
infrared light
____________ is the ability to sense electrical fields
electroreception
sharks use electroreception ___________________ to detect the minute electrical activity of muscles and nerves in nearby prey
ampullae of lorenzini
magnetoreception is ability to respond to _____________
magnetic fields
migratory birds and whales navigate using _____________________ which detect earths magnetic field
magnetoreception
__________ deteact heat or cold
thermoreceptors
pain receptors ________________ respond to excess pressure chemical, light heat
nociceptors
__________________ is the conversion a stimulus to an electrical signal in the sensory receptor cells
sensory transduction
electrical signals is receptors cells are called ____________________
receptor potentials
_________________ are converted to action potentials in the sensory neurons
receptor potentials
receptors cells ______________ with sensory neurons
synapse
________________ is accomplished by way of outer, middle, and inner ears
hearing
_____________ is accomplished by way of the inner ear only
equalibrium
the __________ is the entrance of sound waves into the ear
pinna
the ____________ channels sound waves to the eardrum
auditory canal
sound waves vibrate eardrum, trasmitting the waves to the ____________________
middle ear
the middle ear contains three ____________________ that concentrate the sound vibration while transmitting them from the outer ear to the inner eat
auditory bones
order of ear bones
malleus——-> incus ———–> incus ————-> stapes
the inner ear consists of ____________________
cochlea and semicircular canals
_______________ functions in hearing while the semicircular canals function in equalibrium
cochlea
________ are transmitted as pressure waves through three fluid filled canals within the cochlea
sound vibrations
___________________ are recepters cells for hearing
hair cells
the __________________ which contain hair cells is located within one of these canals
organ of corti
the walls of the eye consists of 3 layers
- fibrous tunic
- vascular tunic
- retina
the _______________ consists of cornea and sclera
fibrous tunic
the cornea is the ________________________ of the fibrous tunic
convex anterior region
the sclera provides the eye its ______________
shape and support
______________ consists of choroid ciliary body and iris
vascular tunic
__________________ forms the posterior part of the vaascular tunic, it contains blood vessels that supply retina
choroid
____________ is anterior to the choroid, its composed of smooth muscle, connected to the lens by ligaments
cilliary body
the cornea is the _______________________ portion of the eye. It allows the entry of ______________________
transparent
light
the sclera is the _________________ of the eye
white
when the ciliary bone muscles contract the lens changes shape to __________________
focus light
______________ is the most anterior region of the vascular tunic (behind the cornea of the fibrous tunic)
iris
the iris is the ___________________ portion of the eye
colored
the iris surrounds a central opening _______________
the pupil
contraction of the iris smooth muscle changes the size of the pupil allowing _________________________
more or less light to enter
_______________ consists of the pigmented layer and the neural layer
retina
the ___________________ is the outer layer of the retina in direct contact with the choroid
pigmented layer
the pigmented layer synthesizes _________________ and delivers it to the neural layer
vitamin A
the _________________ is the innermost layer of the eye wall it contains ________________
neural layer
photoreceptors
the internal eye is partitioned by the lens into _______________________
two fluid filled chambers
the ________________________ is anterior to the lens and is filled with watery aqueous humor
anterior chamber
the ________________________ is the posterior to the lens humor and is filled with viscous virtues
posterior chamber
the lens is the ___________________________ of the eye
focusing apparatus
the lens is located between _________________
anterior and posterior chambers
the lens is suspended within the eye by the ________________________ that attach it to the ciliary body
ligaments
_________________ in the retina neural layer are stimulated by light to produce receptor potentials
photoreceptors
the two types of photoreceptors in the eyes
- rods
- cones
____________ are the more numerous and detect dim light and peripheral vision
rods
_______________ are less numerous and detect bright light and color vision
cones
where are cones more numerous than rods
in the center of the eyes vision field
____________________ synapse with neurons in the retina
rods and cones
receptor potentials in the photoreceptors are converted to _______________________ in the neurons
action potentials
_______________ of these neurons converge to form the optic nerve
axons
______________ exits the eye and carries action potential to the brain
optic nerve
the most common type of effector in an animals body is _________________________
skeletal muscle
every skeletal muscle in the body is an ___________
organ
skeletal muscle tissue is the ________________
dominant tissue type
skeletal muscle tissue are innervated/ surrounded by ____________________
epimysium
________________ is a layer of fibrous connective tissue
epimysium
______________ run the length of the entire muscle
muscle fibers (muscle cells)
muscle fibers are ground bundles called ____________________
fascicles
________________ are separated from other ______________ by perimysium
fascicles
another layer of fibrous connective tissue layer
perimysium
individual muscles fibers consists mostly of contractile organs called _____________________ that run the length of the entire cell
myofibrils
organelle of skeletal muscle cells are _________________________
confined to the borders of the cell
muscle fibers are surrounded by ______________
epimysium (another layer of loose connective tissue)
all of the layers of connective tissue that converge to forms tendons
- epimysium
- perimysium
- endomysium
tendons attach muscle to ________________
bone
muscles usually occur in _______________
antagonistic pairs
antagonistic muscles are muscles with _____________________
opposing functions
each muscle contains many ______________
myofibrils
_______________ that run the length of the fiber and fill the majority of the cell
contractile organelles
myofibrils contain ___________________
myofilament proteins
wrapped around the myofibrils are ___________________ bordered by terminal cistern
T tubules
a T tubules is an inward extension of the cel’s _____________________ (plasma membrane)
sarcolemma
terminal cisternae are the edges of the cells _______________________________
sarcoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER)
terminal cisternae store _______________
calcium
__________________ possess ______________
myofibrils
myofilaments
___________________ have a larger diameter and are made of protein myosin
thick filaments
__________________ have a smaller diameter and are made of the protein actin
thin filaments
____________________ called tropomyosin and troponin also make up the thin filaments
regulatory proteins
_____________________ have an active site that is blocked by tropomyosin and troponin
acting molecules
____________________ are arranged as __________________ within a myofibril
myofilaments
sarcomeres
a sarcomere gives skeletal muscle fibers their visible __________________
striations
_________________ consists of an A band surrounded by an I band
sarcomere
____________________ are the dark bands that contain the entire thick filaments and parts of the thin filaments
A bands
______________ are the light bands that contain only thin filaments
I band
in the middle of an A band is the ______________ where there are only thick filaments. It is slightly lighter region of the A band
H zone
_________________ is the synapse between a neuron and a skeletal muscle fiber
neuromuscular junction
the neuron transmits its _____________________________
action potential to the muscle fibers
this nerve impulse causes the muscle fiber to ___________________________
contract
the neuron’s nerve impulses travels along the muscle fibers ____________________________
sarcolemma (plasma membrane)
the nerve impulse enters into the muscle fiber by way of the _______________________
T tubules
inward extensions of the sarcolemma
the impulse causes the terminal cisternae to release _________________
calcium into the muscle fiber
calcium binding to the tropomyosin and troponin ___________________________ of the thin filaments
regulatory proteins
the ___________________ head of the thick filaments attach to the thin filaments active sites
myosin
the initiation of muscle contraction is referred to as __________________________
excitation and contraction coupling
_______________ is coupled with excitation from stimulation by a nerve impulse
muscle contraction
the movement of myofilaments during contraction which shortens the sarcomere is referred to as the _________________________
sliding filament model
all animals _________________
move
most animals are capable of locomotion ______________
active travel
locamotion is used to _____________________________
____________________
find food and mated and to escape danger
during locomotion ______________ is expended to overcome two forces that would otherwise keep an animal stationary (2 examples)
energy
- friction
- gravity
in water _______________ is more of a challenge than ____________
friction and gravity
_________________ is more dense than air and therefore produces more friction
water
____________ are buoyant in water because water supports an animals weight against gravity
buoyant
fast swimmers have streamlined ___________________ body shape to minimize _____________________
fusiform
friction
on land ______________ is more of a challenge than _______________
gravity
friction
air produces ________________________ but does not support an animals weight against gravity
friction
locamotion on lands is accomplished by way of
- walking and running
- hopping
- crawling
crawling animals must overcome _____________ rather than _____________
friction
gravity
the major challenge for flying animals is __________________
gravity
___________ are airfoils that produce sufficient lift to overcome the force of gravity
wings
muscles interact with the _______________
skeleton
__________ attach to the skeleton and move it when they contract
muscles
three skeletal types exist on the animal kingdom
- hydrostatic skeletons
- exoskeletons
- endoskeletons
_____________ consists of fluid held under pressure in an enclosed body compartment
hydrostatic skeleton
The _______________ gives an animal its shape serves as protection and provides support for muscle attachment
skeleton
_________________________________________ possess a hydrostatic skeleton
cnidarians flatworms rotifers annelids nematods
an earthworm uses its hydrostatic skeleton, muscles, and chateau to move by way of _________________
peristalsis
an ___________________ is deposited to the outside of an animal
exoskeleton
a mollusk shell is an exoskeleton made of _____________________
calcium carbonate
__________ provides a mollusk with protection and grows with the mollucs as the mantle deposits additional layer
shell
an arthropods cuticle is an _____________ made of __________________
exoskeleton
chiton
the exoskeleton must be molded therefore the arthropod must undergo _______________
ecdysis
the _______________________ consists of hard supporting elements situated among the internal soft tissue of an animal
endoskeleton
end skeletons possessed
-sponges: spiracles
-echinoderms:
calcium carbonate
endoskeleton possessed by vertebrates animals
______________ in jawless and cartilaginous fishes and tetrapods
__________________ in bony fished and tetrapods
cartilage
bone and cartilage
a typical __________________ consists of a main shaft with two expanded ends
bone
the main shaft of compact bone is surrounded by a central cavity filled with _________________
yellow bone marrow- fat
the main shaft is surrounded by ___________________________. _______________ pass through this to supply bone
fibrous connective tissue
blood vessels
the two expanded ends contain __________________ filled with ____________________
spongy bone
red bone marrow
red bone marrow functions in _________________
hemopoiesis
the two ends of bone are surrounded by _____________________
cartilage, the cartilage supports the bone where it articulates with another bone at a joint
