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A&P 2 > ch 21 lymphoid and immune systems > Flashcards

ch 21 lymphoid and immune systems Flashcards

1
Q

microbiome

A

microorganisms that reside on and in the human body

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2
Q

microbiome

many are beneficial but some have potential to be

A

harmful

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3
Q

microbiome

also constantly exposed to potentially

A

harmful microorganisms from external environment

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4
Q

microbiome

body is protected by the

A

immune system

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5
Q

immune system

A

not an organ system
but a cell population that inhabits all organs and defends the body from agents of disease

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6
Q

immune system

immune cells concentrated in a true organ system

A

lymphoid system

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7
Q

immune system: lymphoid system

network of organs vein-like vesseles that recover

A

fluid

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8
Q

immune system: lymphoid system

inspect it for

A

disease agents

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9
Q

immune system

activate immune

A

responses

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10
Q

immune system

return fluid to the

A

bloodstream

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11
Q

the lymphoid system & fluid recovery

lymphoid (lymphatic) system

A

lymphatic vessels that penetrate nearly every tissue and a
collection of lymphoid tissues and organs that produce immune cells

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12
Q

the lymphoid system & fluid recovery

fluid recovery

A

fluid continually filters from the blood capillaries into the tissue spaces

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13
Q

the lymphoid system: fluid recovery

blood capillaries reabsorb ____ and the rest ____ enters the lymphatic vessel

A

85%
15%

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14
Q

the lymphoid system: fluid recovery

lymphedema

A

swelling due to interference in lymphatic drainage

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15
Q

functions of the lymphatic system: immune surveillance

excess filtered fluid picks up

A

foreign cells and chemical from the tissues

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16
Q

functions of the lymphatic system: immune surveillance

passes through lymph nodes where

A

immune cells stand guard against foreign matter

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17
Q

functions of the lymphatic system: immune surveillance

activates a protective immune

A

response

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18
Q

functions of the lymphatic system: lipid absorption

lacteals

A

special vessels in small intestine absorb dietary lipids that are not absorbed by the blood capillaries

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19
Q

components of the lymphoid system

lymph

A

the recovered fluid

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20
Q

components of the lymphoid system

lymphatic vessels

A

transport the lymph

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21
Q

components of the lymphoid system

lymphoid tissue

A

aggregates of lymphocytes and macrophages that populate many organs of the body

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22
Q

components of the lymphoid system

lymphoid organs

A

organs where lymphoid cells are concentrated
surrounded by connective tissue capsules

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23
Q

lymph vs blood plasma

lymph

A

clear
colorless fluid
similar to plasma
but low in protein

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24
Q

lymph vs blood plasma: lymph

orginates as tissue fluid taken up by

A

lymphatic vessels

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25
Q

lymph vs blood plasma: lymph

chemical composition varies in

A

different places
(in intestines, after lymph nodes)

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26
Q

lymph and the lymphatic vessels

lymph flows through a system of

A

lymphatic vessels
(lymphatics)

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27
Q

lymph and the lymphatic vessels

lymphatic capillaries are also called

A

terminal lymphatics

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28
Q

lymph and the lymphatic vessels: lymphatic capillaries

microscopic vessels that penetrate nearly every

A

tissue of the body

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29
Q

lymph and the lymphatic vessels: lymphatic capillaries

absent from

A

cartilage
cornea
bone
bone marrow

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30
Q

lymph and the lymphatic vessels: lymphatic capillaries

capillary wall

A

endothelial cells overlapping each other like roof shingles

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31
Q

lymph and the lymphatic vessels: lymphatic capillaries

closed at one end

A

cells tethered to surrounding tissue by anchoring filaments

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32
Q

lymph and the lymphatic vessels: lymphatic capillaries

gaps (intercellular cells)

A

between the cells are large enough to allow bacteria and cells to enter lymphatic capillary

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33
Q

lymph and the lymphatic vessels: lymphatic capillaries

endothelium creates

A

valve-like flaps that open when interstitial fluis pressure is high and close when it is low

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34
Q

lymph and the lymphatic vessels

larger lymphatic vessels composed of 3 layers

A
  • tunica interna: endothelium and valves
  • tunica media: elastic fibers, smooth musce
  • tuncia externa: thin outer layer
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35
Q

lymph and the lymphatic vessels

lymphatic capillaries merge to form

A

collecting vessels
which converge to form larger lymphatic trunks
* solitary intestinal trunk
* paired jugular
* subclavian
* bronchomediastinal
* intercostal
* lumbar trunks

each drains a major portion of body

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36
Q

lymph and the lymphatic vessels: lymphatic vessels

lymphatic trunks converge to form

A

2 collecting ducts

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37
Q

lymph and the lymphatic vessels: collecting ducts

right lymphatic duct

A

receives lymph from right arm
right side of head and thorax
empties into right subclavian vein

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38
Q

lymph and the lymphatic vessels: collecting ducts

thoracic duct

A

larger and longer
begins as a sac in abdomen called the cysterna chyli
receives lymph from below diaphragm, left arm, left side of head, neck, and thorax
empties into left subclavian vein

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39
Q

lymph and the lymphatic vessels: collecting ducts

subclavian veins collect from

A

collecting ducts

40
Q

lymph and the lymphatic vessels: collecting ducts

summary of path from the tissue fluid back to the bloodstream

A
  • lymphatic capillaries
  • collecting vessels
  • 11 lymphatic trunks
  • two collecting ducts
  • subclavian veins

lymph passes through lymph nodes along the way

41
Q

lymph and the lymphatic vessels: flow of lymph

lymph flows under forces similar to those that govern

A

venous return
except no pump (heart)

42
Q

lymph and the lymphatic vessels: flow of lymph

lymph flows at low pressure and slower speed than

A

venous blood

43
Q

lymph and the lymphatic vessels: flow of lymph

stretching of vessels stimulate their

A

contraction

44
Q

lymph and the lymphatic vessels: flow of lymph

moved along by rythmic contractions of

A
  • lymphatic vessels
  • squeezing of skeletal muscles
  • rhythmic pulsations of nearby arteries
  • a thoracic (respiratory) pump
  • rapidly flowing blood in subclavian vein draws lymph into it
45
Q

glymphatic system of the brain

glymphatic system

A

lymphatic-resembling vessels associated with neuroglia

46
Q

glymphatic system of the brain

arteries that penetrate the brain tissue are surrounded in perivascular tunnels containing a mix of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and interstitial fluid (ISF)

A
  • arterial pulsation help drive fluid mix into brain tissue
  • CSF-ISF composition is regulated by astrocytes
47
Q

lymphoid cells

neutrophils

A

antibacterial

48
Q

lymphoid cells

natural killer cells

A

lymphocytes that attack and destroy infected host cells and cancerous cells

49
Q

lymphoid cells

T lymphocytes (T cells)

A

mature in thymus

50
Q

lymphoid cells

B lymphocytes

A

activation causes proliferation and differentiation into plasma cells that produce antibodies

51
Q

lymphoid cells

macrophages

A

large phagocytic cells
are APCs

52
Q

lymphoid cells

antigen presenting cells

A

they displat antigens on surface to alert other immune cells

53
Q

lymphoid cells

dendritic cells

A

APCs found in skin, mucous membranes, and lymphoid organs

54
Q

lymphoid tissues

lymphoid tissue

A

aggregations of lymphocytes in the connective tissues of mucous membranes and various organs

55
Q

lymphoid tissues

dense lymphoid tissue

A

lymphocytes are scattered (not densely clustered)
* Prevalent in body passages open to the exterior: respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts
* In mucous membranes, diffuse lymphoid tissue is called mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)

56
Q

Lymphoid

Lymphoid nodules (follicles

A

lymphocytes and
macrophages gather in dense masses
* May be temporary or permanent features of some tissues
* Aggregated lymphoid nodules (formerly Peyer patches)—large
clusters of nodules in the small intestine

57
Q

Lymphatic organs

Have connective tissue capsule that

A

separates lymphatic
tissue from neighboring tissues

58
Q

Lymphatic organs

Primary lymphoid organs

A

include red bone marrow and
thymus
* Sites where T and B cells become immunocompetent—able to
recognize and respond to antigens

59
Q

Lymphatic organs

Secondary lymphoid organ

A

include lymph nodes, tonsils,
and spleen
* Locations where immunocompetent cells migrate and populate

60
Q

Lymphoid Organs

Red bone marrow

A

soft, loosely organized, highly vascular
material separated from osseous tissue by endosteum of
bone
* Involved in hematopoiesis (blood formation) and immunity
* Blood-forming cells attached to reticular cells and other
elements of marrow stroma
* Secrete colony-stimulating factors that stimulate stem cells to
produce the formed elements
* As blood cells mature, they push their way through the
reticular and endothelial cells to enter the sinus and flow
away in the bloodstream

61
Q

Thymus: Lymphoid Organs

Thymus

A

member of the endocrine, lymphoid, and immune
systems
* Bilobed organ located in superior mediastinum between
sternum and aortic arch
* Houses developing T cells and secretes hormones
regulating their activity
* With age, exhibits large degree of involution—
degeneration, shrinkage
* By age 65, unable to make new T cells
* State of immunosenescence leaves older people vulnerable to
infections, cancer

62
Q

Thymus

thymus

A
  • Fibrous capsule gives off trabeculae (septa) that divide the
    gland into several lobes
  • Lobes have cortex and medulla populated by T cells
  • Thymic epithelial cells involved in T cell development
  • Secrete signaling molecules thymosin, thymopoietin, thymulin,
    interleukins, and interferon
  • Cortical epithelial cells—along with pericytes, surround capillaries
    to form blood-thymus barrier
63
Q

Lymphoid Organs

Lymph nodes

A

bean-shaped structures that cleanse lymph
and are sites of lymphocyte activation
* Most numerous lymphoid organs, about 450 in typical
young adult
* Enclosed with fibrous capsule with trabeculae that divide
interior into compartments
* Parenchyma divided into cortex and medulla
* Germinal centers in cortex—where B cells multiply and
differentiate into plasma cells
* Several afferent lymphatic vessels lead into the node
along its convex surface
* Lymph leaves the node through one to three efferent
lymphatic vessels that leave the hilum

64
Q

Lymphoid Organs

Lymph nodes Concentrated in the following locations:

A
  • Cervical lymph nodes in neck
  • Axillary lymph nodes in armpit
  • Thoracic lymph nodes in thoracic cavity, especially mediastinum
  • Abdominal lymph nodes in posterior abdominopelvic wall
  • Intestinal and mesenteric lymph nodes in mesenteries and near
    appendix and intestines
  • Inguinal lymph nodes in groin
  • Popliteal lymph nodes in back of knee
65
Q

Lymphoid Organs

Lymphadenitis

A

swollen, painful lymph node responding
to foreign antigen

66
Q

Lymphoid Organs

Lymphadenopathy

A

collective term for all lymph node
diseases

67
Q

Lymph Nodes and Metastatic Cancer

Metastasis

A

cancerous cells break free from original primary
tumor, travel to other sites in the body and establish new
tumors
* Metastasizing cells easily enter lymphatic vessels
* Tend to lodge in the first lymph node they encounter,
multiply there, and eventually destroy the node
* Cancerous nodes usually swollen, firm, painless
* Tend to spread to the next node downstream
* Treatment of breast cancer is lumpectomy, mastectomy,
along with removal of nearby axillary nodes

68
Q

Lymphoid Organs

Tonsils

A

patches of lymphoid tissue located at the entrance
to the pharynx
* Guard against ingested or inhaled pathogens
* Covered with epithelium and has deep pits—tonsillar
crypts, lined by lymphoid nodules
* Incomplete fibrous capsule
* Three main sets of tonsils:
* Single pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) on wall of pharynx
* Pair of palatine tonsils at posterior margin of oral cavity
* Numerous lingual tonsils concentrated on each side of base of
tongue
* Tonsillitis—acute inflammation of palatine tonsils

69
Q

Lymphoid Organs

Spleen

A

the body’s largest lymphoid organ
* Inferior to diaphragm and posterolateral to stomach
* Medial hilum for passage of splenic artery and vein, and
lymphatic vessels
* Parenchyma exhibits two types of tissue:
* Red pulp—sinuses filled with erythrocytes
* White pulp—lymphocytes, macrophages surrounding small
branches of splenic artery

70
Q

Lymphoid Organs

Functions of the spleen:

A
  • For old, fragile RBCs, spleen is “erythrocyte graveyard”—
    macrophages recognize and phagocytize them
  • Blood cell production in fetus (and very anemic adults)
  • Lymphocytes, macrophages of white pulp monitors blood for foreign
    antigens, maintains army of monocytes for release when needed
  • Stabilizes blood volume through plasma transfers to lymphoid
    system
  • Spleen is highly vascular and vulnerable to trauma and
    infection
  • Ruptured spleen requires splenectomy, but this leaves person
    susceptible to future infections, premature death
71
Q

Innate ImmuInnate

Pathogens

A

agents capable of producing disease, including
viruses, bacteria, fungi, and other microbes
Three lines of defenses against pathogens:
* First line of defense—skin and mucous membranes,
which serve as barriers
* Second line of defense—protections against pathogens
that break the skin, mucous membrane barriers
* Leukocytes and macrophages, antimicrobial proteins, natural killer
cells, fever, and inflammation
* Third line of defense—adaptive immunity, mechanisms
that defeat a specific pathogen and leave the body with a
memory of it

72
Q

Innate Immunity

Immune system

A

widely distributed population of cells, diverse
chemicals, physical barriers, and physiological responses
Divided into two broad forms of defense:
* Innate immunity—defenses we are born with (innate); protect
us from broad spectrum of disease agents
* It has a local effect: defends at point of invasion, but there are
exceptions (fever)
* It is nonspecific: defenses are against a broad spectrum of
disease agents, rather than one particular pathogen
* Lacks memory: does not “remember” exposure to a specific
pathogen
* Adaptive immunity—defenses against specific pathogens,
developed only upon exposure (adaptive), and maintains
immune memory

73
Q

External Barriers

First line of defense: skin and mucous membranes
Protective features of the skin:

A
  • Toughness of keratin, difficult to penetrate
  • Too dry and nutrient-poor to support much microbial growth
  • Microbes adhered to skin are continually shed with dead
    keratinocytes
  • Presence of an acid mantle—thin film of lactic and fatty acids from
    sweat and sebum that inhibits bacterial growth
  • Dermcidin, defensins, and cathelicidins: peptides in the skin that
    kill microbe
74
Q

Leukocytes and Macrophages

When skin and mucous membranes are penetrated, cellular
defenses await:

A
  • Phagocytes—cells that engulf foreign matter
    Five types of leukocytes (some of which are phagocytes):
  • Neutrophils
  • Eosinophils
  • Basophils
  • Monocytes
  • Lymphocytes
75
Q

Leukocytes:

Neutrophils

A
  • Wander in connective tissue killing bacteria
  • Can ensnare bacteria by releasing a neutrophil extracellular trap
    (NET)—web of nuclear chromatin and proteins
  • Can kill by phagocytizing and digesting microbe, or by release of
    bactericidal chemicals to create killing zone around neutrophi
76
Q

Leukocytes

Eosinophils

A
  • Found especially in mucous membranes
  • Guard against large parasites: tapeworms, roundworms
  • Participate in inflammation
  • React to allergens and participate in allergic reactions
77
Q

Leukocytes

Basophils

A
  • Secrete chemicals that aid mobility and action of other leukocytes
  • Leukotrienes: activate and attract neutrophils and eosinophils
  • Histamine: a vasodilator; increases blood flow and speeds delivery
    of leukocytes to the area
  • Heparin: inhibits clot formation that would impede leukocyte mobility
  • Mast cells also secrete these substances; similar to basophils but
    found in connective tissues
78
Q

Leukocytes

Lymphocytes

A
  • Includes T cells and B cells, which participate in adaptive immunity
  • Also includes natural killer (NK) cells, part of innate immuniy
79
Q

Leukocytes

Monocytes

A
  • Emigrate from the blood into connective tissues and transform into
    macrophages
  • Macrophage system—all the body’s avidly phagocytic cells, except
    leukocytes; includes monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, and
    others
  • Some macrophages are wandering cells; others are fixed in place
  • Examples of specialized forms in specific locations: microglia,
    alveolar macrophages, and stellate macrophages
80
Q

Antimicrobial Proteins:Three outcomes of complement activation:

Inflammation

A
  • C3a stimulates mast cells and basophils to secrete histamine and
    other inflammatory chemicals
  • Activates and attracts neutrophils and macrophages
81
Q

Antimicrobial Proteins:Three outcomes of complement activation:

Immune clearance

A
  • C3b binds with antigen–antibody (Ag-Ab) complexes to red blood
    cells that circulate through liver and spleen
  • Macrophages of those organs strip off and destroy the Ag–Ab
    complexes leaving RBCs unharmed
82
Q

Antimicrobial Proteins:Three outcomes of complement activation:

Phagocytosis

A

C3b coats microbial cells (opsonization) and serves as binding
sites for phagocyte attachmen

83
Q

Antimicrobial Proteins:Three outcomes of complement activation:

Cytolysis

A
  • Complement C3b initiates formation of C5b
  • C5b aggregates with other complement proteins within plasma
    membrane of microbe
  • Form membrane attack complex—a hole in the target cell
    membrane
  • Electrolytes leak out, water flows in rapidly, cell ruptures
    (cytolysis)
84
Q

Natural killer (NK) cells

A

continually patrol body looking for
pathogens and diseased host cells
NK cells attack and destroy microbes, transplanted cells,
cells infected with viruses, and cancer cells
* Recognize infected cell and bind to it
* Release proteins called perforins, which polymerize to
form a ring and create a hole in its plasma membrane
Secrete a group of protein-degrading enzymes—granzymes
* Enter through pore and degrade cellular enzymes and
induce apoptosis (programmed cell death)

85
Q

Fever

Fever (pyrexia)

A

an abnormal elevation of body
temperature
* Febrile—pertaining to fever
* Results from trauma, infections, drug reactions, brain
tumors, and other causes
* Defense mechanism that, in moderation, does more good
than harm
* Promotes interferon activity
* Elevates metabolic rate and accelerates tissue repair
* Inhibits reproduction of bacteria and viruses
* Recovery is sometimes faster when allowing fever to take
its course, rather than taking antipyretics—fever-reducing
medications

86
Q

Fever

fever usually triggered by

A

exogenous pyrogens—fever-
producing agents originating outside the body
* Examples: glycolipids on bacterial and viral surfaces
* Endogenous pyrogens—fever-producing agents
originating from within body (peptides secreted by
neutrophils, macrophages)
* These raise hypothalamic set point for body temperature
* Neurons in the anterior hypothalamus secrete prostaglandin 2E ,
which also raises set point
* Stages of fever: onset, stadium, defervescence

87
Q

Inflammation

Inflammation

A

local defensive response to tissue injury,
including trauma and infection
* General purposes of inflammation
* Limit spread of pathogens, then destroys them
* Remove debris from damaged tissue and initiate tissue repair
* Four cardinal signs of inflammation:
* Redness, swelling, heat, pain
* Involves numerous cytokines—small proteins that
function in chemical communication between cells
* Alter physiology of receiving cell
* Include interferon, interleukins, tumor necrosis factor, chemotactic
factors, and others

88
Q

Inflammation

Mobilization of defenses:

A
  • Most immediate requirement after tissue injury is to get
    defensive leukocytes to the site quickly
  • Achieved by local hyperemia—increasing blood flow
  • Local vasodilation due to vasoactive chemicals
  • Histamine, leukotrienes, and other cytokines
  • Secreted by basophils, mast cells, cells damaged by trauma,
    toxins, or organisms triggering inflammation
  • Hyperemia also washes toxins and metabolic waste from the site
    more rapidly
89
Q

Inflammation

mobilization of defenses continued

A
  • In the mobilization events so far, we can see the basis for
    the four cardinal signs of inflammation:
  • Heat: results from hyperemia
  • Redness: due to hyperemia, and extravasated RBCs in the tissue
  • Swelling (edema): due to increased fluid filtration from the
    capillaries
  • Pain: from direct injury to the nerves, pressure on the nerves from
    edema, stimulation of pain receptors by prostaglandins, bacterial
    toxins, and bradykinin
90
Q

Inflammation

Containment and destruction of pathogens:

A
  • Another priority of inflammation is to prevent pathogens
    from spreading throughout body
  • Fibrinogen filters into tissue fluid, clots to form a sticky
    mesh that walls off microbes
  • Heparin prevents clotting at site of injury
  • Pathogens are in a fluid pocket surrounded by clot
  • Attacked by antibodies, phagocytes, and other defenses
  • Neutrophils accumulate at the injury site within an hour
  • After leaving the bloodstream, they exhibit chemotaxis—attraction
    to chemicals such as bradykinin and leukotrienes that guide them
    to the injury site
91
Q

Inflammation

Containment and destruction of pathogens (continued)

A
  • Neutrophils quickly respond to and kill bacteria
  • Phagocytosis
  • Respiratory burst
  • Secrete cytokines for recruitment of macrophages and additional
    neutrophils
  • Macrophages and T cells secrete colony-stimulating factor to
    stimulate leukopoiesis (production of more leukocytes) thereby
    raising WBC counts in blood
  • Neutrophilia—5,000 cells/μL to 25,000 cells/μL in bacterial infection
  • Eosinophilia—elevated eosinophil count in allergy or parasitic
    infection
92
Q

Inflammation

Tissue cleanup and repair:

A
  • Primarily involves monocytes, which arrive in 8 to 12 hours
    and become macrophages
  • Engulf and destroy bacteria, damaged host cells, and dead and
    dying neutrophils
  • Edema contributes to tissue cleanup
  • Swelling compresses veins and reduces venous drainage
  • Forces open valves of lymphatic capillaries, promoting lymphatic
    drainage of bacteria, dead cells, and debris
  • Pus—yellow accumulation of dead neutrophils, bacteria,
    cellular debris, and tissue fluid
  • Abscess: accumulation of pus in a tissue cavity
93
Q

inflammation

tissue cleanup and repair (continued)

A
  • Platelet-derived growth factor is secreted by blood
    platelets and endothelial cells in injured area
  • Stimulates fibroblasts to multiply, synthesize collagen
  • Hyperemia delivers oxygen, amino acids, and other
    necessities for protein synthesis
  • Increased heat increases metabolic rate, speeds mitosis
    and tissue repair
  • Fibrin clot forms a scaffold for tissue reconstruction
  • Pain makes us limit the use of a body part so it has a
    chance to rest and heal
94
Q

Adaptive Immunity

Adaptive immunity serves as the third line of defense; has
three characteristics distinguish immunity from innate
immunity

A
  • It has a systemic effect: acts throughout the body
  • It exhibits specificity: generates protection and immunity
    to specific pathogens on an individual basis
  • It has a memory: when re-exposed to the same pathogen,
    the body reacts so quickly that there is no noticeable illness
95
Q

Forms of Adaptive Immunity

Two types of adaptive immunity:
Cellular (cell-mediated) immunity

A
  • Lymphocytes directly attack and destroy foreign cells or diseased
    host cells
  • Rids the body of pathogens that reside inside human cells where
    they are inaccessible to antibodies
  • Also acts against parasitic worms, cancer cells, and transplanted
    cells
96
Q

Forms of Adaptive Immunity

Two types of adaptive immunity:
Humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity

A
  • Mediated by antibodies that do not directly destroy a pathogen but
    tag it for destruction
  • Effective against extracellular viruses, bacteria, yeasts, protozoans,
    and molecular (noncellular) disease agents such as toxins, venoms,
    and allergens
97
Q

A

A&P 2 (55 decks)

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