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Medicine Sem 1 > physiology week 9 > Flashcards

physiology week 9 Flashcards

-RBC,Anemia and polycythemia

1
Q

What is the primary role of red blood cells

A
  • Transports hemoglobin, which carries oxygen from lungs to tissues
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2
Q

Why must the hemoglobin remain inside the red blood cells

A
  • To avoid loss through the capillary and kidney membranes
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3
Q

What else does red blood cells contain

A
  • Carbonic anhydrase, which is an enzyme that catalyses the conversion of C02 and water into carbonic acid
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4
Q

What are the roles of carbonic anhydrase

A
  • An enzyme that catalyses the conversion of c02 and water into carbonic acid
  • It enables efficent C02 transport as bicarbonate ions
  • Contributes to acid-base buffering in the blood due to hemoglobin properties
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5
Q

What is the shaoe and size of RBC

A
  • Has a biconcave disc
  • Volume of 90-95 cubic meters
  • Has a flexible bony like structure which allows the deformation for passage through capillaries without rupture
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5
Q

What are the sites of red blood cell production in the embroyonic stage:
-Early weeks
-Middle trimester
-Last trimester+ after birth

A
  • Early weeks:
    -Primitive nucleated red blood cells are produced in the yolk sac
    Middle trimester
    -The liver is the primary ogran for RBC and some is also produced in the spleen and lymph
    LAST TRIMESTER & AFTER BIRTH
    -RBC production shifts to the bone marrow
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5
Q

During childhood where are red blood cells produced

A
  • In the marrow of nearly all bones up to 5 years of age
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6
Q

During Adulthood where is red blood cells produced

A
  • In the membranous bones:
    -Vertberae
    -Sternum
    -Ribs
    -ilia
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7
Q

What is the aging effect in relation to bone marrow

A
  • Bone marrow productivity decreases as age increases even in membranous bones
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8
Q

Where do circulating red blood cells orginate from

A
  • Multipotential hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) in the bone marrow
  • The stem cells self renew to maintain their supply, but their numbers decrease with age
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9
Q

What happens as HSCs( hematopoietic stem cells) reproduce

A

-Most cells differentiate into specific cell types while a small portions remains a HSCs

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10
Q
  • Where do commited cells arise from
A
  • They arise from multipotent stem cells
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11
Q

Whay do commited stem cells produce

A
  • They produce colonies of specific blood cells such as
  • CFU-E , which forms erythrocytes)RBC)
    -CFU-GM, which formes granulocytes and monocytes
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12
Q

What are growth inducers
And how many exist

A
  • They are proteins that control growth and reproduction of stem cells
  • At least 4 major growth inducers exist
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13
Q

Name an example of a growth inducer and its role

A
  • Interleukin -3 and it promotes the growth of nearly all types of committed cells
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14
Q

What are differentiation inducers

A

-Proteins that control differentiation of stem cells into specific blood cell types.
Each differentiation inducer acts on a specific committed stem cell.

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15
Q

Name factors outside the bone marrow that regulate growth and differentiation

A

–Low oxygen levels which increases RBC production
-Infections which stimulates production of specific white blood cells to combat the infection

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16
Q

Name briefly the main stages of RBC formation

A
  • Proerythroblast formation
  • Cell division
    -3 stages of development
  • Condensation of the nucleus and removal of organelles
  • Reticulocyte stage
    -Maturation ino erythrocytes
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17
Q

Explain Proerythroblasts formation

step(1)

A
  • The proerythroblasts are the first identifable cells in the RBC lineage
  • And they orginate from CFU-E stem cells
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18
Q

Explain the cell division process in the formation of RBC

step 2

A
  • Proerythrocytes divide multiple times producing several generations,
  • The first generation is called Basophil erythroblasts
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19
Q

Explain the process that happens in the stages of development

step 3

A
  1. Basophil erythroblats is the first generation , in which its named for its ability to stain with basic dyes
  2. Then the second stage is Polychromatophil erythroblasts, which is wehere hemoglobin synthesis occurs
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20
Q

What stage happens After the 2 stages of development in producing RBC

step 4

A

CONDENSATION OF NUCLEUS AND REMOVAL OF ORGANELLES
- As the cells mature,
-hb concentration increases
-Nucleus condenses into a small size
- And organelles such as ER are reabsorbed

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21
Q

What happens in the reticulocyte stage

step 5

A
  • The cells become a reticulocyte
  • Reticuolcytes contain remnants of organelles and a small amount of basophillic material
  • Then they enter the bloodstream via diapedesis( movement through capillary pores)
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22
Q

Name the 2 stages in the stages of development for production of RBC

A
  • Basophil erythroblasts
    -Polychromatophil erythroblasts
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23
Q

How is a mature erythrocyte formed

A
  • W/n 1-2 days the remaining basophillic material disappers and the cell becomes a mature erythrocyte
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24
Q

What is the purpose of red blood cell regulation

A
  • It ensures sufficient red blood cells to transport oxygen to the tisues without impending blood flow
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25
Q

Name three stimulis for RBC production

A
  • Anemia
    -High altitudes
    -Circulatory diseases
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26
Q

What is the role of Erythropoietin
and hypoxia

A
  • It is a glycoprotein hormoe that is essential for RBC production under hypoxia
  • Hypoxia triggers erythropoietin production which stimulates RBC formation until oxygen levels become normal
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27
Q

What is the site of Erythropoietin production

A
  • About 90 % in the kidneys, which is secreted by fibroblast-like interstitial cells in the cortex and medulla and the rest in the liver
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28
Q

Explain the mechanism of how Erythropoietin causes RBC production

A

-It stimulates the formation of proerythroblasts from hematopoietic stem cells
-Then, its speeds up the progression of the proerythroblasts through the embyonic stages

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29
Q

What does the absence of Erythropoietin lead to

A
  • Reduced minimal RNC production
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30
Q

What is Vitamin B12 and Folic Acid essential for?

A
  • DNA synthesis, forming thymidine triphosphate
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31
Q

What does a deficiency in V12 and Folic acid lead to

A

Maturation failure Anemia

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32
Q

Where is Folic Acid found in

A

Green vegetables,liver,fruits

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33
Q

What disorder is Folic Acid deficiency associated with

A
  • Gastrointestinal absorption disorders like sprue
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34
Q

What does deficient erythropoiesis produce

A

It produces large,irregular RBCs called macrocytes
whcih have fragile membranes and shorter life span

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35
Q

What causes deficient erythropoiesis

A

Deficiency on folic acid or V12

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36
Q

Where does hemoglobin synthesis begin and continue

A
  • Begins in polychromatophil erythroblasts and continiues into the reticulocyte stage
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37
Q

What is the role of retoculocytes in hemoglobin formation

A
  • Synthesize small amounts of hemoglobin 1 day before maturing into erythrocytes
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38
Q

Explain the chemical steps in Hb formation

A

-Succinyl-CoA combines with glycine to form pyrrole.
-Four pyrroles form protoporphyrin IX, which binds with iron to create heme
-Each heme combines with a polypeptide chain (globin) to form a hemoglobin subunit.
-Four subunits combine to form a complete hemoglobin molecule.

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39
Q

Name the 4 types of Hb chains

A
  • Alpha
    -Beta
    -Gamma
    -Delta
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40
Q

What does adult hemoglobin consist if

A

2 alpha and 2 beta chains

41
Q

How many heme groups does hb have and its role

A
  • Has 4 heme groups, this allows it to carry 4 ocygen molecules
42
Q

Explain Hb binding to oxygen

A
  • It binds to oxygen loosely and reversibly
43
Q

What is the total amount of iron in the body

A
  • 4-5 g
44
Q

Explain iron distribution in the body

A

65% in Hb
4% in myoglobin
1% in heme compounds
15-30% is in ferritin

45
Q

How is iron transported

A
  • It binds to aptransferrin in the blood to form transferrin
    -Transferrin carries iron into the plasms and delivers it to the tossues where it is needed
46
Q

Where is excess iron stored

A
  • Reticuloendothelial cells
47
Q

Name and desribe the 2 ways in which iron is stored

A
  • Ferritin: Main way to store iron
  • Hemosiderin: Insoluble from of storing iron
48
Q

How is iron recycled

A
  • After 120 days, aged/old RBCs are destroyed and hb is broken down by moncyte-macrophage cells
  • ## The iron is released and stored in the ferritin pool
49
Q

What is Anemia

A

A deficiency of hemoglobin in the blood, caused by few or insufficient RBCs in the cell

50
Q

Name the types of Anemia

A
  • Blood loss Anemia
    -Aplastic Anemia
    -Megaloblastic Anemia
    -Hemolytic Anemia
51
Q

What is Aplastic Anemia caused by

A
  • Bone marrrow dysfunction often due to Toxic chemicals
52
Q

What is Megaloblastic Anemia caused by

A
  • Caused bye a deficiency in Vitamin B12,folic Acid
53
Q

What is secondary Polycythemia triggered by
and what does it cause

A

Tissue hypoxia due to low oxygen levels
- Causes increased RBC

54
Q

What affects does Anemia have on the circulatroy system

A
  • Reduced viscosity
    -Increased work load on the heart
55
Q

What is polycythemia vera
what does it result in

A
  • A pathological condition due to genetic mutation in the blood
  • uncontrolled RBC production
  • Leads to excessive WBC and platelets production
56
Q

What are the effects of polycythemia on the circulatroy system

A

-Increased blood Viscosity
-Increased blood volume

57
Q

What is the function of leukocytes

A
  • To combat infection and inflammation
58
Q

Where are the formation sites of Leukocytes and explain what they produce

A
  • Bone Marrow: produces granulocytes,monocytes and lymphocytes
    -Lymph tissue:produces lymphocytes and plasma cels
59
Q

Name 3 types of leukocytes

A
  • Monocytes
    -Plasma cells
    -lymphocyte
60
Q

What is the function of granulocytes and moncytes

A
  • Release inflammatory substances
61
Q

What is the function of platelets

A

Activate blood clotting

62
Q

Name the two lineages of white blood cells

A
  • Myelocytic lineage
    -Lymphocytic lineage
63
Q

Desribe the 2 lineages of the WBC and what they produce

A

-Myelocytic Lineage: Starts with myeloblast and produces granulocytes and monocytes.
-Lymphocytic Lineage: Starts with lymphoblast and produces lymphocytes and plasma cells.

64
Q

What are platelets known as

A
  • Thrombocytes
65
Q

What are platelets formed from

A

Fromed from megakarycoytes fragments in the bone marrow

66
Q

What is the life span of Plasma cells( Thrombocytes)

A

10 days

67
Q

What is the life span for granulocytes

A

4-5 days

68
Q

What is the life span for monocytes

A

10 - 20 hrs

69
Q

What is the role of neutrophils in Defense

A

Destroy and attack bacteria in the blood streams

70
Q

What are macrophages

A

Originate as blood monocytes

71
Q

How des neutrophils and monocytes enter the cells

A

Squeeze through the gaps between the endothelial cells in the capillaries and venules

72
Q

Why do neutrophils and macrophages use Ameboid motion

A

They use it to travel through the tissue

73
Q

Explain WBC attraction to inflamed areas by chemotaxis
and examples of chemicals released

A

WBCs are directed towards inflamed areas by chemical gradients of substances released during inflammation, including
- Bacterial or viral toxins

74
Q

What is phagocytosis

A

The ingestion of harmful agents by neutrophils and macrophages

75
Q

Name 3 selective mechanism used in allow better phagocytosis

A

-Surface texture
- Protective coats
- Opsonization

76
Q

Explain the purpose of surface texture as a selective mechanism in phagocytosis

A
  • Rough surfaces enhances phagocytosis
77
Q

Explain the purpose of protective coats as a selective mechanism for phagocytosis

A

Substance have protective coating that repel phagocytes , whereas dead tissues or foreign particles do not have these coats making them vulnerable

78
Q

What is the purpose of Opsonization as a selective mechanism in phagocytes

A

Antibodies and complementary proteins like C3 mark pathogens for phagocytosis

79
Q

Explain the mechanism of Phagocytosis

A

Mechanism of Phagocytosis:
-Neutrophils and macrophages use pseudopodia to surround and engulf particles, forming a phagosome.
-The phagosome fuses with lysosomes to create a phagolysosome, where the ingested material is digested.

80
Q

Explain phagocytosis by neutrophils
- what are they specialised for

A
  • Nuetroohils are fast acting phagocytes that ingest 3-20 bacteria before dying
  • they are specialised for small particles like bacteria
81
Q

Explain phagocytosis by macrophages

A

Phagocytosis by Macrophages:
-Macrophages, derived from monocytes, are more powerful and long-lasting than neutrophils.
-They can engulf larger particles, such as red blood cells or malarial parasites, and survive after digesting particles.

82
Q

Explain how phagocytized particles are digested

A

Digestion of Phagocytized Particles:
Lysosomes release digestive enzymes into the phagosome to break down the ingested material.
Macrophages have additional enzymes, like lipases, for digesting lipid-rich bacterial membranes.

83
Q

How does the neutrophils and macrophages kill bacteria resistant to enzymatic digestion

A

Neutrophils and macrophages produce bactericidal agents (e.g., superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl ions) that kill bacteria resistant to enzymatic digestion.

84
Q

What happens to the histiocytes in the skin

A
  • Divide locally to combat infections and destroy pathogens
85
Q

What does the reticuloendothelial system include

A
  • Monocytes
    -Mobile macrophages
    -Fixed macrophages
86
Q

What is the function of the macrophages in the lymph nodes

A
  • Trap particles from lymph
87
Q

What is the function of the kupffer cells in the liver

A
  • Filter bacteria from portal blood
88
Q

What is the function of the Aveolar macrophages in the lungs

A

They phagocytize particles in the lungs

89
Q

What is inflammation

A
  • Tissue injury from bacter,chemicals or heat
90
Q

What are3 key features of inflammation

A
  • Tissue swelling
    -Vasodilation
    -Clotting
91
Q

What is the purpose of the Walling-of Effect

A

To block the spread of bacteria by forming fibrin clots

92
Q

What is the first line of defense
what is the second line of defense
what is the third line of defense

A

Tissue Macrophages
Neutrophils
Macrophage invasion

93
Q

What components does Pus contain

A
  • Macrophages
    -Tissue fluid
    -Dead neutrophils
94
Q

Name the 3 mechanisms in which neutrophils invade

A

-Margination
-Diapedesis
-Chemotaxis

95
Q

What is the primary role of Eosinophils in

A

Parasite infections

96
Q

What is the function of basophils

A
  • similar to mast cells
    release seratonin
    histamine
97
Q

What is the role of basophils in Allergies

A

-React with igE antibodies release

98
Q

What is Leukopenia

A
  • Low production of WBC by the bone marrow
99
Q

What causes leukopenia

A
  • drugs,radiation
100
Q

What are the treatments for leukopenia

A
  • Antibiotics
101
Q

What is leukemia

A
  • Uncontrolled production of WBX due to cancerous mutation
102
Q

Name the 2 types of leukemia

A

-lymphocytic leukemia
-Myelogenous leukemia

Medicine Sem 1 (33 decks)

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