Cognitive Health

Question 1

Dawkins’ four ‘memories

Answer 1

Dawkins (2009) refers to four ‘memories’:
Genetic (i.e. DNA)
Immune system (i.e. antibodies)
Nervous system
Culture (i.e. word of mouth, books etc)

Question 2

Associative learning

Answer 2

Learning the associations between events and/or actions
Two main types of associative learning:
Classical conditioning (aka Pavlovian, Respondent or Type I), where the animal learns associations between external events
Operant conditioning (aka Instrumental or Type II),       where the animal learns associations between its actions and events

Question 3

Operant conditioning

Answer 3

Operant response: the behaviour the animal performs that is rewarded (or punished) e.g. lever press
Reinforcement: the action caused by the operant response e.g. door opening to release cat, food reward for rat
Simplest approach is one press results in one reinforcement
This was how Thorndike’s cat puzzle box worked
More elaborate approaches use different ‘schedules of reinforcement’ e.g. more than one response per reinforcement

Question 4

Positive reinforcement

Answer 4

an increase in the frequency of a behaviour when a positive reinforcer (something pleasant) is presented

Question 5

Positive punishment

Answer 5

a decrease in the frequency of a behaviour when a positive punisher (something unpleasant) is presented

Question 6

Negative reinforcement

Answer 6

an increase in the frequency of a behaviour when a negative reinforcer (something unpleasant) is removed (or avoided)

Question 7

Omission training

Answer 7

a decrease in the frequency of a behaviour when a negative punisher (something pleasant) is removed

Question 8

behaviourism

Answer 8

n. Psychology the theory that human and animal behaviour can be explained in terms of conditioning

Question 9

behaviouralism

Answer 9

n. the methods and principles of the scientific study of animal (and human) behaviour

Question 10

The misbehaviour of organisms

Answer 10

the behaviour of any species cannot be adequately understood, predicted or controlled without knowledge of its instinctive patterns, evolutionary history, and ecological niche
This further contradicted Skinner’s belief in the ‘equivalence of associability’ i.e. that any response would be associated with any reward
In spite of the limitations in operant conditioning highlighted by the Brelands and subsequent studies, operant approaches still form the basis of many of the training techniques we use with animals

Question 11

Animal training techniques

Answer 11

The emphasis should be on positive reinforcement and omission training
Avoid using positive punishment and negative reinforcement where possible
Learning is going on all the time, not just in a once-a-week training session, so training must be consistent all the time
Need to ensure the training does not become location specific by continuing training in other places

Question 12

Extinction in terms of behaviour

Answer 12

Extinction is the removal of a behaviour from the animal’s repertoire using omission training (negative punishment) e.g. withholding a reward
Needs to be on a continuous schedule and you must ensure the behaviour is never rewarded
The animal will go through a ‘frustration’ stage until extinction occurs
This frustration often results in what is called an extinction burst
This is when we see a sudden increase in the frequency of an operant response part way through extinction
This is usually followed by the final decline in the behaviour…
…. but this sudden increase in responding can confuse novice trainers as they think it is a sign that extinction is not working
Patience is needed to see the extinction burst through

Question 13

Extinction or punishment?

Answer 13

Although the frustration associated with extinction is aversive (i.e. it is unpleasant for the animal), it is less aversive than the fear that can be elicited by positive punishment
e.g. trying to stop an unwanted behaviour by hitting or yelling at a dog
For this reason it is better to use extinction (rather than positive punishment) to get rid of unwanted behaviour

Question 14

variable ratio (VR)

Answer 14

the most resistant to extinction
Example: you are trying to stop a dog begging for food when the family eat at the table
The worst thing is if a family member occasionally ‘gives in’ and gives the dog food
This is then a VR schedule of reinforcement, so the dog will continue to beg, and extinction (stopping begging) will take even longer

Question 15

continuous reinforcement (or FR1)

Answer 15

the least resistant to extinction
So try putting the begging dog on an FR1 ratio (continuous reinforcement) for a few days
i.e. give it a small treat every time it begs at the table (within reason – some dogs do not seem to experience satiety!)
Then stop completely (and do not give in at all)
The dog should then extinguish (stop begging) quite quickly (at least it should be more quickly than when on a VR schedule)

Question 16

Discrimination in pigeons

Answer 16

The ability to mentally rotate shapes forms part of human intelligence tests

The pigeons were remarkably quick and efficient at this discrimination task, better than students!
Does this show they are highly intelligent?
Pigeons have evolved for flight and their sensory system is adapted to recognising features, their view of which will ‘rotate’ as they fly over them

Question 17

Insight learning

Answer 17

“the sudden production of a new adaptive response not arrived at by trial behaviour”
Various problems with this definition e.g. how do we know the response was not arrived at by trial and error?
However, as humans we recognise the phenomenon (“something coming to us in a flash”)
Mental processes can be inferred from animal behaviour
Use the term ‘insight’ in relation to animal learning when animals solve problems quickly, too quickly to have used trial-and-error

Question 18

Types of representation

Answer 18

Do animals have internal representations, or mental images of goals to be achieved?
A key question in animal cognition studies
Explicit representation: the rat has a metal image of the food (“higher psychical faculty”)
Procedural representation: the rat simply uses a set of instructions e.g. L, R, L, L etc. (“lower psychical faculty”)

Question 19

Altricial

Answer 19

Altricial species emerge into the outside world at an early stage of development and are largely helpless

Question 20

Precocial

Answer 20

Precocial species emerge into the outside world at a later stage of development, and they typically imprint on the first moving object they see

Question 21

Prenatal and neonatal periods in regards to behaviour

Answer 21

In altricial species (e.g. cats and dogs), the immature state of the nervous system at birth means it is unlikely there are significant prenatal effects on behaviour resulting from learning
Puppies are comparatively helpless and are dependent on the mother in the neonatal period (the first two weeks after birth)
Eyes and ear canal are neither open or functional and they rely on tactile stimuli, certain tastes and possibly smell
Short periods of daily handling of puppies by humans in this stage can influence development e.g. accelerated maturation, enhanced problem solving skills and better ability to cope with stress later in life

Question 22

The transition period- neonatal to puppyhood

Answer 22

Puppies then undergo a rapid transition when neonatal behaviours are replaced with those associated with puppyhood and adult life
Starts with the opening of the eyes (Day 13 ± 3), and ends at days 18-20 with the ear canals opening (and the auditory startle response)
This period of change lasts about 1 week
Puppies can crawl backwards as well as forwards, and begin to stand and walk
They start to defecate and urinate outside the nest
Performance at classical and operant learning tasks improves

Question 23

Recognition of the socialisation period

Answer 23

In 1945, an extensive programme of research into behavioural ontogeny in dogs was started in a research lab in Maine, USA
It concluded that there were periods in the early development of puppies when they were unusually sensitive to environmental influences
The 9-10 week period following transition is important for the development of social skills, and was described as a ‘critical stage’ (thought to be similar to the imprinting stage in precocial species)
It was later recognised that the time boundaries are more varied than thought, so this period is better described as a sensitive stage

Question 24

Socialisation period in puppies

Answer 24

Socialisation: the process whereby an animal learns how to recognise and interact with its own species and the species with which it cohabits
Puppies need to be introduced to a wide of people and other animals during their socialisation period
Needs to be both in the home and beyond
The aim of socialisation is to make the pet better equipped for life in a human context and to fulfil their owners expectations of a companion animal
This is helped by the fact dogs are social (pack) animal

Question 25

Recommended socialisation experiences

Answer 25

Meeting a variety of people:
Men, women, young people (babies, children and teenagers), elderly
Delivery people (postman, milkman etc)
People with varying appearance (beards etc) and clothing
People with various modes of transport (bike, jogging, pram etc)
Meeting a variety of animals:
Cats, dogs, livestock, horses, small domestic pets (rabbits, birds etc)
Remember predator-prey relationships and avoid unnecessary stress for either species

Question 26

Feline socialisation

Answer 26

Issues with socialisation are most widely publicised with canines, but felines are altricial and also experience a socialization period
It is from weeks 2-7 in the kitten
Introduction to at least four different people
‘Kitten Kindergarten’ has been pioneered by an Australian vet
Uses cat-specific socialisation methods (i.e. canine methods can’t be simply transferred over)
Cats come from a different social background to dogs and have no ultimate need for interaction with their owners
Cat social behaviour in the wild is the cooperative rearing of young, and cats are ultimately solitary creatures
Kittens need exposure to social contact (with humans) for them to appreciate it and in order to meet the needs of owners
During the socialisation period, kittens need to be lifted frequently, gently restrained and touched gently over their bodies
This prepares them for cuddling interactions (an experience that would be alien to them without socialisation)

Question 27

Cognitive Health Summary

Answer 27

There are two types of associative learning:
Classical conditioning – learning associations between external events
Operant conditioning – learning associations between actions and events
Animals find it easier to learn operant tasks when the reward matches their associated instinctive behaviour
Animal training should be based on positive reinforcement and omission training
Appropriate socialisation in early life helps ensures companion animals can adapt to the roles required by their owners