Breeding for Conservation Flashcards
Species Conservation
Conservation defined as ‘securing populations of species for the long term’
• In-situ Conservation
- Conservation in natural surroundings
- Management and monitoring of biodiversity where it is encountered • Integrated approach
- E.g. Nature reserves, biospheres, national parks
• Ex-situ Conservation
- Conservation away from the natural habitat
* E.g. Zoos, aquariums, wildlife parks, safari parks, gene banks.
Role of Zoos in Conservation
- “Zoos and aquariums are the third largest funder of conservation globally” WAZA 2020.
- Direct or Indirect conservation
- Financial
- Material
- In-kind contribution to research
- Ex-situ breeding
- Captive breeding programmes
- Education
- Reintroduction programmes
Legal Requirements of Zoos
- Conservation requirements You must do all of the following: • keep animals in an environment suitable for their species
- do as much as possible to stop any animals escaping
- stop pests and vermin getting into the zoo
- keep records of the zoo’s collection
- help educate people about biodiversity
- Zoo operators also need to do at least one of the following: • conservation research or training
- sharing conservation information
- breeding wild animals in captivity
- repopulate an area or reintroduce species into the wild • https://www.gov.uk/guidance/keeping-zoo-animals
Captive Exotic Species
- The majority of captive zoo animals are bred in captivity
- Purchase of animals from other zoos
- Transfers and exchanges between zoos • National and International
- Donations
- Private or public
- Taken from the wild (very rare)
- Orphans, injuries, disease risk, threat of extinction, seized from owners who have acquired illegally
Captive Breeding
The process of breeding animals outside of their natural environment in restricted conditions in farms, zoos or other closed facilities.
Purpose in zoos and aquariums:
• Increase captive population numbers of threatened or endangered species • Preservation of captive populations
• Reintroduction programmes
• Release programmes
• Safeguarding of the gene pool
• Produce animals for zoos, aquariums, and other public facilities: • Encourage visitors
• Education
• Financial gain
Aim of Captive Breeding Programmes
• To form large, viable populations of species ex situ long-term
• Purpose:
• providing animals for public educational and/or exhibit opportunities
• providing fundraising material
• providing research collections from which to gain basic knowledge of animal biology
and husbandry
• providing demographic and genetic backup to wild populations
Viable Populations
- Demographically stable
- Adequate animals of breeding age
- Able to reproduce at the required rate
- Healthy, well maintained and capable of self-sustaining reproduction • Able to breed when needed
- Distributed among several institutions to lessen the risks of catastrophic loss
- Sufficient size to maintain high levels of genetic diversity • To remain healthy and adapt to changing environments
- 90% diversity for 100 years
Management of Breeding Programmes
- International co-operative breeding programmes
- Four major associations:
- WAZA: The World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA)
- EAZA: European Association of Zoos and Aquariums
- BIAZA British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquariums • AZA: Association of Zoos and Aquariums
- These associations work together for captive breeding programmes
- In the UK, captive breeding programmes are facilitated and endorsed by EAZA • EEPs
European Endangered Species Programme
OLD MODEL
• Established in 1985
• Intensive population management
• An EEP per species in a breeding programme
• Each EEP has a species coordinator (specialist) assisted by the species committee
• Collect information on the status of all the animals of the species in zoos and aquariums • Producing a studbook
• Perform demographic and genetic analyses
• Produce a plan for the future management of the species
• Make recommendations on
• Which animals should breed
• Which animals should not breed
• Which animals should move and to where
EAZA Ex-Situ Programmes (EEPs)
NEW MODEL
• Introduced 2018 (5 year role out)
• Population management programmes for 400 species
• Recommends strategies for the protection of zoo populations based on the specific roles that individual species can play in conservation, research, or education
• Change required due to the wide variety of reasons for species conservation for individual species
• Critically endangered animals
• Animals driven from a specific habitat.
• Public preconceptions about species that hamper conservation and fundraising efforts
• Animals bred for reintroduction programmes
• Animals bred to raise awareness of conservation issues that may not be well understood by the
public or legislators
- Taxon Advisory Groups (TAG) decide which species are to be managed under an EEP
- The EEP co-ordinator with the EEP species committee:
- Is responsible for the day-to-day management of each of the EAZA Ex situ Programmes
- Will develop, implement and update a Long Term Management Plan (LTMP)
- Manage the EEP studbook dataset
- Develop (non-)breeding and transfer recommendations, catering to the needs of EEP holders in alignment with the goals of the population.
- Publish the studbook and annual reports
EAZA Ex-Situ Programme: Hyena
- A bad name with the public
- The role of the new hyena EEP
- To educate the public on hyena social life
- To undertake research on Hyena social life
- Breeding conservation within social groups
- To educate on the role Hyenas play in removing disease carrying carcasses from the savannah.
- To show how each species contributes to the health of the world’s ecosystems
Studbooks
- Data base for individuals included in a captive breeding programme
- Primary objective is to facilitate the coordinated management of ex situ populations
- For each individual the studbooks should include:
- Identities of sire and dam
- Date and location of birth
- Full transaction history (names of owners and dates of ownership changes)
- Where animals have been obtained from or released into the wild, the studbook should record, if possible, details of the capture or release location
- Any individual identifiers (e.g. house names, local identification numbers, tags, transponders, tattoos)
- Any data on the reproductive potential of living animals (e.g. temporary contraception method and dates, permanent contraception such as castration)
- Date and location of death
- Cause(s) of death and information on disposal of body.
- Other information pertinent to a particular programme (e.g. sub-species, genetic analysis).
Studbook Data Systems
• From 1989 studbooks typically maintained in the DOS-based Single Population Analysis & Records Keeping System (SPARKS)
• SPARKS was developed by ISIS (International Species Information System)
• Since January 2017, SPARKS has gradually been replaced by ZIMS (Zoological
Information Management System)
• Digital studbook data set developed by Species360 (formally ISIS – International Species Information System)
• ZIMS for studbooks is now a requirement of EAZA for all EEPs
Other Considerations with conservation programs
• Social Interaction
• Solitary species, housing, husbandry, appropriately matched animals,
transportation • Genetic goals
• Prevent inbreeding and maintain genetic diversity • Behavioural competence
• The ability of an animal to express appropriate behaviour in a given situation, e.g. courtship, parenting
• An animal that does not show appropriated breeding behaviour may not
like the mate selected
Breeding Cycle in Captivity
- Identify breeding pairs
- Prepare male and female for mating
- Oestrus detection
- Mating
- Natural
- Artificial insemination
- Embryo transfer
- Confirmation of pregnancy
- Maintenance of pregnancy
- Care of offspring
Natural Mating in Captivity
• Easiest least invasive method
• No always part of an EAZA Ex-situ breeding programme
• Is this ethical?
• Highly suited where both male and females of a species exist at one zoo
• Consider genetics and inbreeding
• Individuals may be transported from other zoos once identified via EEP co-
ordinator for breeding
• If long distance this may require quarantine (up to 6 months) • Need to consider housing
• Mimic natural (wild) breeding behaviours in captivity
Breeding Cheetahs for Conservation: Preparation
- Cheetahs: a natural mating success story (aided by research and understanding) • Captive populations are small and fragmented
- Intensive management required to retain genetic diversity
- Housing
- Hoofstock in adjacent exhibits can increase reproductive behaviours
- Predators in adjacent exhibits will reduce reproductive behaviours
- Social Structure
- Group structures have greater breeding success
- Separate males and females physically and visually (reduced likelihood of sibling bond)
- Rotate animals through enclosures and introduce new animals (increases breeding behaviours) • Logisticsincaptivity
Breeding Cheetahs for Conservation: Oestrus Detection
- Induced ovulation (ovulation induced by mating and presence of male)
- Introduce male to female (close proximity)
- Eg male in outside enclosure overnight, female indoors
- Can measure faecal oestrogen concentrations as signs of ovulation
- Female may
- Roll on ground, Defaecate on prominent sites such as on trees
- Males exposed to female faeces and urine (if receptive to male) • Vocalise, Run, Display erections
- In adjacent enclosures, the male’s reaction normally intensifies and the female normally shows a combination of tail flagging, rolling or rubbing her head against objects
Breeding Cheetahs for Conservation: Mating
- Staff must be experienced in recognising behaviours • Reduces fighting risk
- Helps forms successful breeding pairs
- May be some aggression
- Copulation usually occurs with the hour and lasts 30-45 seconds
- Strong mate preferences in males and females
- Introduce the female to one male.
- Introduce the female to a coalition.
- Introducing the female to a different male each day whilst receptive
- Introduce the female to a male of choice, by placing different males in adjacent enclosures
Breeding Cheetahs for Conservation: Confirmation of Pregnancy
• Gestation 90-98 days
• Female separated from group
• Faecal progesterone tests:
• 70 days post-breeding.
• Progesterone levels increase above baseline post-breeding with or without pregnancy until day 60 post-breeding
• Progesterone declines from d60, rising again when the female is pregnant.
• Weekly weighing:
• During (false) pregnancy there is a steady weight gain during the first 60 days.
• After 60 days females having a false pregnancy start to lose weight, whereas pregnant females
will continue to gain
• Ultrasound:
• Requires that females are trained and not stressed by the procedure
Maintenance of Pregnancy
- Housing
- Warmth
- Place to give birth
- Shelter
- Able to separate from other animals
- Nutrition • Energy
- Protein • Fats
- Health
- Vaccinate
Care of offspring
- Wild animals
- Minimal interaction with humans
- Monitor for behaviours
- Monitor for health
- Colostrum (mammals)
- Warmth • Care
- Consider when to separate
Further Challenges for Cheetahs
- Many females do not breed in captivity
- Poor semen quality of males
- To utilise genetics use artificial insemination or embryo transfer
- Artificial Insemination
- Unsuccessful
- Induced ovulation protocol need refinement • Difficult to inseminate to the uterine horns
- Embryo transfer via OPU-IVF
- OPU and IVF successful
- Difficulties with transfer of embryos • Feb 19th 2020 first ET cubs born
Artificial Insemination
- Suitable when limited availability of individuals • Dependent on effective and reliable techniques • Requires expertise and research
- Requires technical facilities
- Can be invasive
- Success with AI seen in captive elephants
Artificial Insemination Elephants
- Oestrus Detection • Semen collection • Insemination
- Few mature male bulls
- Poor sperm quality and low libido • Reduced transportation of animals • Older females less likely to breed
Oestrus Detection Elephant
- Endocrine monitoring techniques • Faecal and urine monitoring
- LH surge
- Double LH surge technique
- LH surge 3 weeks prior to ovulation
- LH surge 1 day prior to ovulation (ovLH surge)
Semen Collection and Storage elephant
- Collected by transrectal electroejaculation of an anaesthetised bull • Semen quality is variable
- Advise 70% motility for use in AI programme
- Semen usually chilled
- Semen can be cryopreserved
- Tusker Task Force, Semen Biobanking of African Elephant Bulls
- https://youtu.be/Ls9pzL8igGo
- Semen collection of wild bull semen for preservation of genetics
Artificial Insemination Elephants
- Over 50 individuals born by AI in captivity worldwide
- First success in 1998
- Calf born 2000 (22 month gestation)
- Routine procedure
- Well-established
Conservation Breeding IVF
- Useful where individual numbers are very low • Previously stored semen
- Collected (stored) oocytes
- Difficult to develop
- Requires expertise and technical ability • Research-led
- An option for “extinct” species
- The only lifeline for the Northern White Rhino
Ethical Considerations Captive Animals
- Good intentions to conserve species
- But does captivity cause harm?
- Ethical paradox:
- Conservation is about the species
- Animal welfare is about the individual
- Utilitarian Opinion
- The greater good for the greatest number
- Harm to a few individuals is justifiable because it benefits the species
- Animal Welfare Opinion
- Immanueal Kant (18th Century)
- The act itself must be moral and have a pure intention regardless of final consequence
Reasons ‘For’ Captive Breeding
- Conservation of the species
- Conservation of genetics
- Moral obligation to conserve species • Habitat loss
- Poaching
- Safer in zoos than in wild where they would not survive
- Has prevented extinction in a number of species • Golden Lion tamarin
- Arabian oryx
- California condor
- Partula snails
- Przewalski’s horse
- Socorro dove
Reasons ‘Against’ Captive Breeding
- Low success of reintroduction programmes
- Number of captive individuals too low to maintain genetic diversity
- Benefit to overall species does not outweigh negative effect to individuals
- Captive breeding not well established in a significant number of species
- Removal of wild species from their natural habitat for breeding is immoral
- Many of the animals kept in zoos are not for breeding programmes
- Only 800 of the 7368 species can be conserved through captive breeding due to space limitations in zoos
Ethical Considerations: Breeding
- Which species to breed? • Key species
- Those most at threat
- Those that have greatest chance of survival • Successfulreintroduction
- An integrated approach is required • Reason for decline targeted
- Habitat preservation
- In-Situ conservation?
- Pan-Situ
- Captive populations used for restocking (where individual exist in-situ) • In-situ populations taken to captivity for genetic diversity
