Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

PT100 Study > Chapter 6: Cardiovascular System > Flashcards

Chapter 6: Cardiovascular System Flashcards

1
Q

brady-

A

slow

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

ecto-

A

out, outside

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

macro-

A

large

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

micro-

A

small

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

oligo-

A

deficiency

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

pre-

A

before

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

pro-

A

before, forward

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

re-, retro-

A

behind, back

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

tachy-

A

rapid

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

-ary

A

pertaining to

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

-cyte

A

cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

-dynia

A

pain

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

-edema

A

swelling

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

-emesis

A

vomiting

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

-genesis

A

creating, producing

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

-gram

A

record

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

-lysis

A

destruction

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

-megaly

A

enlargement

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

-metry

A

measurement

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

-oid

A

resembling

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

-rrhaphy

A

suture, suturing

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

-rrhexis

A

rupture

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

-sclerosis

A

abnormal condition of hardening

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

-stasis

A

cessation, stopping

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Mediastinum

A

area in the center of your chest, slightly to the left, where your heart resides

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Three Layers:

A

epicardium
myocardium
endocardium

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Epicardium

A

outer lining of the heart

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

myocardium

A

middle muscle layer

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

endocardium

A

inner lining of the heart

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Pericardium

A

fibrous membrane in which the heart is enclosed
also called the pericardial sac

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

pericardial fluid

A

small amount of fluid in the pericardium

acts as a lubricant that reduces friction as the heart repeatedly contracts and relaxes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Venous insufficiency

A

difficulty moving blood in the body back to the heart, helps to elevate legs

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

arterial insufficiency

A

difficulty moving blood from the heart to the body, elevating legs does not help

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

Atria

A

two upper chambers of the heart, left and right atria, which receive blood and perform 30% of the work

both atria contract at same time, but pump blood into different areas.

Right ATRIUM pumps blood downward through tricuspid valve into right ventricle.

Left ATRIUM receives blood from pulmonary veins, when it contracts it forces blood downward through mitral valve into left ventricle

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

Ventricles

A

larger, lower chambers of the heart
right and left ventricles
perform 70% of the work

Right ventricle contracts it forces blood up and out through pulmonary valve into pulmonary arteries, lead to lungs where carbon dioxide is exchanged for oxygen.

Left ventricle pumps blood upward and out through aortic valve into aorta and out to various parts of the body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

What is the largest chamber of the heart?

A

left ventricle, largest and most muscular chamber, because it pumps blood and therefore works harder than any of the others

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

Septum

A

thick layer of muscle tissue that divides the right and left sides of the heart

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

Bicuspid valve

A

mitral, exits the left atrium into the left ventricle

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

Pulmonary valve

A

exits the right ventricle into the pulmonary arteries

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

Aortic Valve

A

exits the left ventricle into the aorta

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

Apex

A

largest part of the heart, lower left area

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

Auscultating

A

(listening to) sounds from the mitral valve where apical pulse is best heard

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

Apical Pulse

A

pulse point on your chest at bottom tip (apex) of your heart

listening to apical pulse for 1 full minute most accurate method for measuring heart rate, preferred method in situations in which accuracy is important

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

Venae cavae

A

blood that is low in oxygen but high in carbon dioxide returns from the body to the right atrium VIA the inferior and superior venae cava

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

Pulmonary Arteries

A

the only arteries in the body that transport oxygen-poor blood

blood circulates through lungs and gets rid of carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen. then pumps back into heart through pulmonary veins into the left atrium

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

Pulmonary Veins

A

unique in that they are the only veins that transport oxygen rich blood.

blood from lungs returns through pulmonary veins to the left atrium.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

Mnemonic for remembering the order of blood flow through valves of the heart

A

Try Performing Better Always

Tricuspid
Pulmonary
Bicuspid
Aortic

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

Pulse Oximeter

A

device used to monitor heart rate and measure the saturation of peripheral oxygen (SpO2) in the blood

differentiates between oxygenated and deoxygenated blood by passing two beams of light, infrared and red, through the finger to a light detector

Bright red oxygenated blood absorbs more infrared light

dark red deoxygenated hemoglobin absorbs more red light

Normal SpO2 for healthy individuals is 96% to 99%

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

Arteries

A

intricate network where oxygen-rich blood is pumped from the heart to all parts of the body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

Arterioles

A

tiny arteries

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

Capillaries

A

microscopic-sized arteries with walls that are just one cell thick

blood that is low in O2 and high in CO2 and waste leaves the capillaries

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

Venules

A

tiny veins

Blood that is low in O and high in CO and waste leaves the capillaries and enters these microscopic-sized veins.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

Veins

A

blood from body into heart

blood is drained from head and upper body via the superior vena cava and from the lower body via inferior vena cava

travels under much less pressure than arterial blood

contain one way valves that facilitate circulation by preventing the backflow of blood

pumping action created by contraction and relaxation of leg muscles also helps propel blood upward

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

How many Americans did the CDC say have heart attacks yearly in August 2017 report?

A

about 790,000 Americans
580,000 are first heart attacks
210,000 are those who have already had a heart attack

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

arteriosclerosis

A

vessels become narrowed and hardened due to several factors including hypertension, cholesterol build up.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

hypertension

A

high blood pressure

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

cholesterol

A

fatty, plaque-like substance may build up inside surfaces of the coronary vessels causing further narrowing or even blockage

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

Coronary Artery Disease

A

CAD

sometimes also called Atherosclerotic heart disease (ASHD

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

occluded

A

blocked

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

myocardial infarction (MI

A

heart attack

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

Sinoatrial (SA) node

A

cluster of specialized cells in your right atrium
serves as natural pacemaker for the heart, initiating an electrical impulse about 60 to 100 beats per minute

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

Depolarization

A

the resulting electrical charge after electrical impulses are transmitted throughout all the muscle cells in the heart. the inside of the cardiac muscle cells become electrically positive in relation to the outside.
in response, the individual cardiac muscle cells in your atria contract in unison.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

Normal rhythm

A

normal sinus rhythm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

atrioventricular (AV) node

A

floor of right atrium, sometimes thought of as backup pacemaker
receives impulse from SA node and transmits it down to both ventricles via the bundle of His located within the septum and Purkinje fibers distributed through the septum and throughout the ventricles.

occurs just slightly after contraction of the atria, combination of the two results in one complete heartbeat.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
65
Q

how blood pressure readings work

A

reflect the amount of pressure exerted against the arterial walls during ventricular contraction and ventricular relaxation phases of the cardiac cycle.

130/80 or higher is considered high blood pressure by the American Heart Association

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
66
Q

cardiac cycle

A

contraction and relaxation of the four heart chambers

average cardiac cycle is 0.8 seconds

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
67
Q

Systole

A

Blood that is low in O and high in CO and waste leaves the capillaries and enters these microscopic-sized veins.

the phase of the heartbeat when the heart muscle contracts and pumps blood from the chambers into the arteries.

systolic pressure, upper number in blood pressure ex 120/80

reflects highest pressure exerted against artery walls during ventricular contraction

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
68
Q

Diastole

A

Lowest pressure exerted against artery walls during ventricular relaxation

the phase of the heartbeat when the heart muscle relaxes and allows the chambers to fill with blood.

lower number, diastolic pressure, reflects lowest pressure exerted against artery walls during ventricular relaxation.
ex 120/80

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
69
Q

Pulse point

A

large arteries in the body that have a strong pulse and are easily palpated

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
70
Q

Tricuspid valve

A

exits the right atrium into the right ventricle

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
71
Q

angi/o

A

vessel

ex
angioedema (ăn-jē-ō-ĕ-DĒ-mă)
swelling of a vessel

72
Q

vas/o

A

vessel

vasorrhaphy (văs-OR-ă-fē)
suturing of a vessel

73
Q

aort/o

A

aorta

aortostenosis (ā-or-tō-stĕ-NŌ-sĭs)
narrowing or stricture of the aorta

74
Q

arteri/o

A

artery

arteriosclerosis (ăr-tē-rē-ō-sklĕ-RŌ-sĭs)
abnormal condition of hardening of an artery

75
Q

ather/o

A

thick, fatty

atheroma (ăth-ĕr-Ō-mă)
thick, fatty tumor

76
Q

atri/o

A

atria

atrioventricular (ā-trē-ō-vĕn-TRĬK-ū-lăr)
pertaining to the atria and the ventricles

77
Q

cardi/o

A

heart

tachycardia (tăk-ē-KĂR-dē-ă)
condition of a rapid heart rate

78
Q

coron/o

A

heart

coronary (KOR-ō-nă-rē)
pertaining to the heart

79
Q

electr/o

A

electricity

electrocardiogram (ē-lĕk-trō-KĂR-dē-ō-grăm)
record of electricity of the heart

80
Q

hem/o

A

blood

hemolytic (hē-mō-LĬT-ĭk)
pertaining to the destruction of blood

81
Q

hemat/o

A

blood

hematemesis (hĕm-ăt-ĔM-ĕ-sĭs)
vomiting of blood

82
Q

phleb/o

A

vein

phleborrhexis (flĕb-ō-RĔK-sĭs)
rupture of a vein

83
Q

ven/o

A

vein

venostasis (vē-nō-STĀ-sĭs)
stopping of a vein

84
Q

scler/o

A

hardening

arteriosclerosis (ăr-tē-rē-ō-sklĕ-RŌ-sĭs)
abnormal condition of hardening of the arteries

85
Q

thromb/o

A

thrombus (clot)

thrombophlebitis (thrŏm-bō-flē-BĪ-tĭs)
inflammation of a vein with the presence of a clot

86
Q

valv/o

A

valve

valvotomy (văl-VŎT-ō-mē)
cutting into or incision of a valve

87
Q

valvul/o

A

valve

valvuloplasty (VĂL-vū-lō-plăs-tē)
surgical repair of a valve

88
Q

vascul/o

A

blood vessel

vasculogenesis (văs-kū-lō-JĔN-ĕ-sĭs)
creation of a blood vessel

89
Q

ventricul/o

A

ventricle

ventriculostomy (vĕn-trĭk-ū-LŎS-tō-mē)
mouthlike opening into a ventricle

90
Q

AF, A-fib

A

Atrial Fibrillation

91
Q

INR

A

International Normalized Ratio

92
Q

AS FID

A

arteriosclerotic heart disease

93
Q

BP

A

Blood Pressure

94
Q

bpm

A

beats per minute

95
Q

CABG

A

Coronary Artery Bypass Graft

96
Q

CAD

A

Coronary Artery Disease

97
Q

CHF

A

Congestive Heart Failure

98
Q

CP

A

Chest Pain

99
Q

CPR

A

CardioPulmonary Resuscitation

100
Q

CV

A

CardioVascular

101
Q

DVT

A

Deep-Vein Thrombosis

102
Q

ECG, EKG

A

ElectroCardioGram

103
Q

ECHO

A

ECHOcardiogram

104
Q

HF

A

Heart Failure

105
Q

HR

A

Heart Rate

106
Q

HTN

A

HyperTensioN (high blood pressure)

107
Q

ICU

A

Intensive Care Unit

108
Q

LA

A

Left Atrium

109
Q

LV

A

Left Ventricle

110
Q

MI

A

Myocardial Infarction

111
Q

MR

A

Mitral Regurgitation

112
Q

MS

A

Mitral Stenosis

113
Q

P

A

pulse

114
Q

PAC

A

Premature Atrial Contraction

115
Q

PT (cardio)

A

Prothrombin Time

116
Q

PTCA

A

Percutaneous Transluminal Coronary Angioplasty

117
Q

PTT

A

Partial Thromboplastin Time

118
Q

PVC

A

Premature Ventricular Contraction

119
Q

RA

A

Right atrium

120
Q

RBC

A

red blood cell

121
Q

RV

A

right ventricle

122
Q

V-fib

A

ventricular fibrillation

123
Q

VT, V-tach

A

Ventricular tachycardia

124
Q

VTE

A

Venous ThromboEmbolism

125
Q

anemia

A

group of disorders generally defined as a reduction in the mass of circulating red blood cells

126
Q

aneurysm

A

weakening and bulging of part of a vessel wall

127
Q

angina

A

heart pain or other discomfort felt in the chest, shoulders, arms, jaw, or neck, caused by insufficient blood and oxygen to the heart; usually a symptom of heart disease

128
Q

Arrhythmia

A

loss of heart rhythm (rhythmic irregularity)

129
Q

arteriosclerosis

A

thickening, loss of elasticity, and loss of contractility of arterial walls; commonly called hardening of the arteries

130
Q

atherosclerosis

A

the most common form of arteriosclerosis, marked by deposits of cholesterol, lipids, and calcium on the walls of arteries, which may restrict blood flow

131
Q

atrial fibrillation (AF, A-fib)

A

common irregular heart rhythm marked by uncontrolled atrial quivering and a rapid ventricular response

132
Q

bruit

A

soft blowing sound caused by turbulent blood flow in a vessel

TIP
Bruit - Blow

133
Q

cardiac tamponade

A

serious condition in which the heart becomes compressed from an excessive collection of fluid or blood between the pericardial membrane and the heart

134
Q

cardiomyopathy

A

group of conditions in which the heart muscle has deteriorated and functions less effectively

135
Q

congestive heart failure (CHF)

A

inability of the heart to pump enough blood to meet the needs of the body, resulting in lung congestion and dyspnea

136
Q

cor pulmonale

A

condition of right ventricular enlargement or dilation from increased right ventricular pressure; also called pulmonary heart disease or right-sided heart failure

137
Q

coronary artery disease (CAD)

A

narrowing of the lumen, or inner open space of a vessel, of heart arteries due to arteriosclerosis and atherosclerosis

138
Q

Deep-vein thrombosis (DVT)

A

development of a blood clot in a deep vein, usually in the legs; also known as thrombophlebitis

139
Q

disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)

A

serious condition that arises as a complication of another disorder, in which widespread, unrestricted microvascular blood clotting occurs; primary symptom is hemorrhage

140
Q

embolus

A

undissolved matter floating in blood or lymph fluid that may cause an occlusion and infarction

141
Q

endocarditis

A

infection of the inner lining of the heart that may cause vegetation to form within one or more heart chambers or valves

142
Q

fibrillation

A

quivering of heart muscle fibers instead of an effective heartbeat

143
Q

hypertension (HTN)

A

blood pressure that is consistently higher than 140 systolic, 90 diastolic, or both

144
Q

ischemia

A

temporary reduction in blood supply to a localized area of tissue

145
Q

malignant hypertension

A

rare, life-threatening type of hypertension evidenced by optic-nerve (eye) edema and extremely high systolic and diastolic blood pressure

146
Q

mitral regurgitation

A

condition in which the mitral valve does not close tightly, allowing blood to flow backward into the left atrium; also called mitral insufficiency or mitral incompetence

147
Q

mitral stenosis

A

condition in which the mitral valve fails to open properly, thereby impeding normal blood flow and increasing pressure within the left atrium and lungs

148
Q

murmur

A

blowing or swishing sound in the heart, due to turbulent blood flow or backflow through a leaky valve

149
Q

myocardial infarction (MI)

A

death of heart-muscle cells due to occlusion of a vessel; commonly called heart attack

150
Q

myocarditis

A

condition in which the middle layer of the heart wall becomes inflamed

151
Q

pericarditis

A

acute or chronic condition in which the fibrous membrane surrounding the heart becomes inflamed

152
Q

peripheral artery disease (PAD)

A

condition of partial or complete obstruction of the arteries of the arms or legs; similar to peripheral vascular disease (PVD), which includes both arteries and veins

153
Q

polycythemia vera

A

chronic disorder marked by increased number and mass of all bone marrow cells, especially RBCs, with increased blood viscosity and a tendency to develop blood clots

154
Q

Raynaud disease

A

disorder that affects blood vessels in the fingers, toes, ears, and nose, marked by vessel constriction and reduced blood flow in response to triggers such as cold temperature; also known as Raynaud gangrene or Raynaud phenomenon

155
Q

rheumatic heart disease

A

complication of rheumatic fever in which inflammation and damage occur to parts of the heart, usually the valves

156
Q

shock

A

syndrome of inadequate perfusion (circulation of blood, nutrients, and oxygen through tissues and organs) as a result of hypotension or low blood pressure

157
Q

thromboangiitis obliterans (TAO)

A

type of vascular disease associated with tobacco use, marked by inflammation and clot formation within small vessels of the hands and feet, which may lead to gangrene and surgical amputation; sometimes called Buerger’s disease

158
Q

varicose veins

A

bulging, distended veins due to incompetent valves, most commonly in the legs

159
Q

Angiography

A

Diagnostic or therapeutic radiography (radiological imaging) of the heart and blood vessels

160
Q

Automated external defibrillator (AED)

A

Small computer-driven defibrillator that analyzes the patient’s rhythm, selects the appropriate energy level, charges the machine, and delivers a shock to the patient

161
Q

Automatic implanted cardioverter defibrillator (AICD)

A

Very small defibrillator, surgically implanted in patients with a high risk for sudden cardiac death, that automatically detects and treats life-threatening arrhythmias

162
Q

Cardiac catheterization

A

Evaluation of the heart vessels and valves via the injection of dye that shows up under radiology

163
Q

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)

A

Emergency procedure that provides manual external cardiac compression and sometimes artificial respiration

164
Q

Cardioversion

A

Restoration of normal sinus rhythm (NSR) by chemical or electrical means

165
Q

Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)

A

Surgical creation of an alternate route for blood flow around an area of coronary arterial obstruction

166
Q

Defibrillation

A

Delivery of an electric shock with the goal of ending ventricular fibrillation and restoring NSR

167
Q

Electrocardiography (ECG, EKG)

A

Creation and study of graphic records (electrocardiograms) of electric currents originating in the heart

168
Q

Event recorder

A

Portable monitoring device that transmits heart rhythms by telephone to a central laboratory, where dysrhythmias can be detected and analyzed

169
Q

Holter monitor

A

Portable device worn by a patient during normal activity that records heart rhythm for up to 24 hours

170
Q

International normalized ratio (INR)

A

Standardized method of checking the prothrombin time (PT); used to monitor and adjust warfarin (Coumadin) dosage in order to maintain a balance between clot prevention and excessive bleeding

171
Q

pacemaker

A

Device that can trigger the mechanical contractions of the heart by emitting periodic electrical discharges

172
Q

Partial thromboplastin time (PTT)

A

Measure of blood-clotting time, used to monitor heparin therapy; heparin is an anticoagulant medication that slows the clotting time of blood. A balance must be maintained between clot prevention and excessive bleeding.

173
Q

Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA)

A

Method of treating a narrowed coronary artery via inflation and deflation of a balloon on a double-lumen catheter inserted through the right femoral artery

174
Q

Prothrombin time (PT)

A

Procedure that measures the clotting time of blood; used with the international normalized ratio (INR) to assess levels of anticoagulation in patients taking warfarin (Coumadin). A balance must be maintained between clot prevention and excessive bleeding.

175
Q

stress test

A

Treadmill test that can show if the blood supply is reduced in the arteries that supply the heart

176
Q

Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE)

A

Study of the heart via a probe placed in the esophagus

177
Q

Troponin

A

Protein released into the body by damaged heart muscle, considered the most accurate blood test to confirm the diagnosis of an MI

PT100 Study (51 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions