Anatomy Exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
the volume of blood ejected from a ventricle with each ventricular contraction
A
stroke volume (SV)
2
Q
the volume of blood ejected by a ventricle in 1 minute
A
cardiac output (CO)
3
Q
What is the equation to find cardiac output?
A
CO = SV x HR
4
Q
the potential capacity of the heart to function well beyond its basal level, in response to alterations in physiologic demands
A
cardiac reserve
5
Q
changing the HR is the body’s principal mechanism of __________ control over CO
A
short-term
6
Q
What factors affect heart rate?
A
autonomic nervous system, chemicals, other factors
7
Q
what factors affect stroke volume?
A
preload, contractility, afterload
8
Q
what is the key factor contributing to the regulation of heart rate?
A
the balance between the S-ANS and P-ANS
9
Q
what parts in the body monitor factors that influence HR?
A
cardiovascular center, proprioceptors, baroreceptors, and chemoreceptors
10
Q
sympathetic impulses increase the heart rate via the _____________________
A
cardiac accelerator nerve
11
Q
where does the cardiac accelerator nerve extend from?
A
the sympathetic trunk to the SA (and AV) node
12
Q
parasympathetic impulses decrease HR via the ___________
A
vagus nerve
13
Q
where does the vagus nerve innervate
A
the SA (and AV) node
14
Q
what is the neurotransmitter for postganglionic parasympathetic neurons?
A
acetylcholine
15
Q
What are two examples of chemical regulation of HR?
A
hormones and cations
16
Q
what are other factors that affect HR regulation?
A
age/gender, level of physical fitness, body temperature
17
Q
the stretch of the heart before a contraction
A
preload
18
Q
forcefulness of the squeeze
A
contractility
19
Q
the force needed to open the aortic valve
A
afterload
20
Q
the ability of a vessel to distend and increase volume with increasing transmural pressure
A
distensibility
21
Q
_________ is the opposite of vascular tone
A
distensibility
22
Q
venous distensibility is approximately ___ times larger than arterial distensibility
A
30
23
Q
________ opposes vessel distensibility
A
vasoconstriction
24
Q
vasoconstriction will increase ____________ to the heart
A
venous return
25
the volume of blood returned to the heart via the veins after each cardiac cycle
venous return
26
venous return determines the volume of blood present in the ventricle at the end of ________________
ventricular diastole
27
in normal conditions, venous return must ______ cardiac output
equal
28
what factors affect venous return
distensibility/vasoconstriction of the veins, total blood volume, filling time
29
What are the three primary pump mechanisms that maintain venous return
the cardiac pump, skeletal muscle pump, and respiratory pump
30
what is preload determined by
EDV
31
what does increasing preload result in
a stronger ventricular contraction
32
increasing venous return will increase _____, which will result in a stronger force of ____________ and an increased _________
EDV; ventricular contraction; SV
33
"The heart will pump what it receives"
Frank-Starling Law
34
what is contractility determined by
the tension generated by the individual ventricular fibers
35
The cardiac accelerator nerve not only innervates the nodes but it also innervates the ________________
contractile myocytes
36
stimulation of the cardiac accelerator nerve increases the strength of the _______ of the myocytes
contraction
37
chemicals that influence the contractility of the heart
inotropes
38
which inotropic agents increase ventricular contractility
positive
39
what are some examples of positive inotropic agents
Epi/NE; Ca; Dopamine; Digitalis
40
which inotropic agents decrease contractility
negative
41
what are some examples of negative inotropic agents
beta-blockers; Ca channel blockers; acidosis
42
what are key determinates of afterload
systemic vascular resistance and blood viscosity
43
the resistance to blood flow created by the blood vessels of the systemic circulatory system
systemic vascular resistance
44
systemic vascular resistance is largely influenced by what?
the S-ANS
45
what does SVR control
the degree of vasoconstriction of small blood vessels
46
the thickness of a fluid
viscosity
47
increasing blood viscosity increases _________
afterload
48
the Frank-Starling curves are based on the ______________________________
degree of contractility and afterload of the heart
49
the physiological process involving the growth of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels
angiogenesis
50
what does angiogenesis help with?
growth and development, as well as wound healing
51
angiogenesis is a fundamental step in the transition of tumors from a _______ state to a _________ state
dormant; malignant
52
what are the five general types of blood vessels?
arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins
53
at any given time, over _____ of the total blood volume in the body is found in the veins/venules
50%
54
the liver, spleen, and skin function as _______ _____________
blood reservoirs
55
arteries = ________
distribution
56
arterioles = ____________
resistance
57
capillaries = _____________
exchange
58
veins = _________
capacitance
59
a tissue's ability to regain its original shape and size after being stretched, squeezed, or otherwise deformed
elasticity
60
the ability of a vessel to decrease lumen size by activation of vascular smooth muscle within the vessel wall
contractility
61
the ability of a hollow organ to distend and increase volume with increasing transmural pressure; or the tendency of a hollow organ to resist recoil when under a distending force
compliance
62
the compliance of a blood vessel describes its _____________
dispensability
63
compliance is proportional to _________
elasticity
64
the ability to hold large volumes of fluid
capacitance
65
the greater the amount of elastic tissue in a ______ _______, the greater the ________, and the smaller the _________
blood vessel; elasticity; compliance
66
the ability to hold large volumes of fluid
capacitance
67
____ are capacitance vessels
veins
68
compared to veins, arteries have more ___________ in their vessel walls
elastic tissue
69
arteries = ________ _______
elastic recoil
70
veins =
compliance & capacitance
71
what are the three layers of the wall of the blood vessel
tunica intima, tunica media, and tunic externa
72
capillaries only have a _____ _______
tunica intima
73
the layer of the blood vessel wall closest to the lumen
tunica intima
74
which layer of the blood vessel has direct contact with the blood
tunica intima
75
the tunica intima consists of both __________ and a _______ __________
epithelium; basement membrane
76
the specialized squamous epithelial layer of the tunica intima is called the __________
endothelium
77
damage to the endothelial lining and exposure of blood to the collage fibers beneath this layer is a primary cause of ______ ______ __________
blood clot formation
78
large arteries also have a thick, distinct layer of elastic fibers known as _________ ________ ___________
internal elastic lamina
79
which layer of the blood vessel wall is the thickest layer
tunica media
80
which wall consists primarily of smooth muscle supported by elastic CT fibers
the tunica media
81
the smooth muscle in the tunica media makes it possible for vessels to ________ and ________
vasoconstrict and vasodilate
82
a mild S-ANS stimulation, causing a slight vasoconstriction in most vasculature at rest
vascular tone
83
when sympathetic influence increases, ___________ ________
vasoconstriction increases
84
when sympathetic stimulation is withdrawn, ________ __________
vessels vasodilate
85
alpha receptors = _____________
vasoconstriction
86
beta receptors = _____________
vasodilation
87
the nerves that innervate the vascular smooth muscle are called ______ ________
nervi vasorum
88
nervi vasorum run within the walls of blood vessels and are generally all ________ _______
sympathetic fibers
89
the large arteries also have a thick, distinct ______ _______ __________
external elastic lamina
90
the layer of the blood vessel wall that consists primarily of collagen CT fibers and forms the outer protective layer
tunica externa
91
the tunica externa also contains ____ _________ that supply oxygen and nutrients to the vessel wall
vasa vasorum
92
arteries carry blood ____ from the heart to the tissues
away
93
arteries, functionally, posses both ________ and __________
elasticity and contractility
94
elasticity allows arteries to ___________________________
accept blood under great pressure
95
_________ _________ can limit bleeding from a wounded vessel
localized contractility
96
the arteries with the largest diameter
large/elastic arteries
97
which vessels can accommodate the high pressures generated during ventricular systole
large/elastic fibers
98
which vessels elastic recoil aids in propelling blood forward during ventricular diastole
large/elastic fibers
99
list six elastic arteries
1. aorta
2. pulmonary trunk, and R/L pulmonary artery
3. brachiocephalic trunk
4. R/L common carotid artery
5. R/L subclavian artery
6. R/L common iliac artery
100
medium-sized arteries that contain more smooth muscle than elastic fibers in their tunica media
medium/muscular arteries
101
which arteries are referred to as distributing arteries
medium/muscular arteries
102
very small, almost microscopic vessels
arterioles
103
very slight changes in smooth muscle tone can significantly change their _____ ____
lumen size
104
arterials are critical in slowing down ______ _____
blood flow
105
what are arterioles called
resistance vessels
106
factors that affect arteriolar lumen size
S-ANS and chemicals
107
Because lumen size is a determinate of vascular resistance, the S-ANS assumes a key regulatory function in _______ ________ and thus in regulating _____ ______
vascular resistance and blood flow
108
what chemicals cause vasodilation
nitric oxide, carbon dioxide, lactic acid, histamine
109
what are two powerful vasoconstrictors?
angiotensin II and vasopressin
110
microscopic vessels that connect arterioles to venules
capillaries
111
is pressure within the capillaries low or high
very low
112
the process of allowing exchange of nutrients and wastes between the blood and tissue cells through the interstitial fluid
capillary exchange
113
what is the primary function of capillaries?
capillary exchange
114
capillaries are often referred to as ?
exchange vessels
115
what are the three mechanisms that capillary exchange is accomplished?
1. Diffusion (simple or facilitated)
2. Vesicular Transport (aka transcytosis)
3. Bulk Flow
116
in most regions, capillaries branch to form an extensive ________ ________ throughout the tissue
capillary network
117
The capillary network increases the total surface area across these exchange vessels, allowing a _______________________________
rapid exchange of large quantities of materials
118
the process of supplying blood to the target tissue
perfusion
119
the flow of blood through the capillaries
microcirculation
120
what is microcirculation regulated by?
arterioles and precapillary sphincters
121
the ability of tissue to locally and automatically adjust its own blood flow through its capillaries in order to match its metabolic demands
autoregulation
122
what are the three types of capillaries?
continuous, fenestrated, and sinusoidal(discontinuous)
123
what are capillaries composed of?
simple squamous epithelium and a basement membrane
124
which type of capillary is the least porous
continous
125
which type of capillary has extremely high permeability
sinusoidal
126
continuous blood capillaries have the ___________ intercellular clefts and sinusoidal blood capillaries have the _________ intercellular clefts
smallest; largest
127
the pressure in a capillary is at the highest at ?
the intercellular cleft at the arterial end
128
what two forces achieve capillary fluid dynamics
hydrostatic pressure and colloid osmotic pressure
129
the space between two adjacent endothelial cells
intercellular clefets
130
minute openings in the surface of the endothelial cells through which gases, liquids, or microscopic particles can pass
pores (aka circular fenestrae)
131
which two types of capillaries have a complete basement membrane
continuous and fenestrated
132
which capillary has a discontinuous basement membrane
sinusoidal
133
which type of capillary has no pores, and no gaps in the basement membrane?
continuous
134
true or false? the majority of our capillaries are continuous
true
135
continuous capillaries use _________ _________ for the movement of many substances across its single-celled layer
vesicular transport
136
a barrier separating the circulating blood from the CSF
Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)
137
What is unique about the Blood-Brain Barrier?
It has no intracellular clefts, very few transport vesicles, and a thickened basement membrane
138
the capillary exchange of most substances is blocked, with the exception of four things?
1. water
2. glucose
3. necessary amino acids
4. some ions
139
fenestrated capillaries have pores in the endothelial cells that allow _____ _________ and limited amounts of ______ to diffuse through
small molecules; protein
140
examples of where fenestrated capillaries are located
small intestines, kidneys, choroid plexus, and several endocrine structures
141
the pores in sinusoidal capillaries are larger to allow _______ and various ________________ to pass through
RBCs; larger serum proteins
142
examples of where sinusoidal capillaries are located
liver, spleen, bone marrow
143
what is the relationship between sinusoidal capillaries and the liver?
it's where many plasma proteins are synthesized
144
what is the relationship between sinusoidal capillaries and the spleen?
it's where worn-out RBCs and platelets are taken out of circulation
145
what is the relationship between bone marrow and sinusoidal capillaries?
it's where RBCs and platelets are put into the bloodstream
146
small vessels that are formed from the union of several capillaries
venules
147
where are venules located
at the end of a capillary network
148
venules merge to form ________
veins
149
veins have much less _______ and ________ as arteries
elastic tissue and smooth muscle
150
in comparison to arteries, veins have much thinner ______ and a _______ ________
walls; larger lumen
151
true or false? veins offer little resistance to blood flow
true
152
veins contain valves to prevent the ______ _____ __________
backflow of blood
153
weak valves can lead to what?
varicose veins
154
the pressure you feel when taking your pulse
pulse pressure
155
how is pulse pressure calculated?
taking the difference between systolic and diastolic BP
156
the arterial pulse pressure is greatly reduced across the arterioles, and is completely _______ by the time it reaches the capillaries
dampened
157
a direct connection between two tubular structures
anastomosis (or shunt)
158
naturally occurring arterial anastomoses connect the distal ends of the radial and ulnar arteries, providing collateral circulation to regions of the hands
deep and superficial volar (palmar) arches
159
the skin uses _________ ___________ _____ to reduce heat loss
physiologic arteriovenous shuts
160
A ______ _________ ________ might be used when treating a patient with colon cancer
surgical ileorectal anastomosis
161
diffusion is the most important mechanism for _______ _________
capillary exchange
162
diffusion of a molecule is directly related to the ______ _____ available for diffusion and the ______ ________ across the barrier
surface area; concentration gradient
163
which type of capillary exchange includes both endocytosis and exocytosis and involves the movement of macromolecules across capillary endothelium via the use of vesicles
vesicular transport (aka transcytosis)
164
the movement of a fluid and substances down a pressure gradient
bulk flow
165
____ _____ is bidirectional depending on the net filtration pressure derived from the 4 starling forces
bulk flow
166
what does bulk flow occur through
pores and intercellular clefts
167
is bulk flow passive or active transport
passive
168
when moving from the bloodstream into the interstitium, bulk flow is termed _________
filtration
169
when moving from the interstitium into the bloodstream, the process is termed _________
reabsorption
170
for bulk flow, changes in _______ _______ _______ and in the _____ ___ ______ ___ _________ _____ will alter exchange
pressure driving forces; size of pores or intercellular clefts
171
bulk flow is most important for ______ __________ between the vascular and interstitial space and is particularly important in the _________
fluid regulation; kidney
172
the pressures that work toward equilibrium and which influence the exiting and entering of fluid are collectively described by
Starling's Law of the Capillaries
173
our blood plasma is a _____ _______ of largely fluid and proteins, where the proteins are the ______ _______.
colloidal mixture; colloid solutes
174
the most abundant and therefore significant protein colloid in our blood is ________
albumin
175
the movement of fluid across the walls of capillaries depends on the interplay of ________ and _________ ________
hydrostatic and osmotic pressures
176
the pressure exerted by a column of fluid
hydrostatic pressure
177
a PUSH fluid
hydrostatic pressure
178
the pressure of blood pushing against the walls of the capillaries
Blood Hydrostatic Pressure (BHP)
179
the pressure exerted by the interstitial fluid against the outside of the capillaries
Interstitial Fluid Hydrostatic Pressure (IFHP)
180
the pressure exerted by solutes within a fluid
osmotic pressure
181
the higher the albumin concentration, the greater the ________ __________
osmotic pressure
182
PULL pressure
Osmotic Pressure
183
the osmotic pressure created by the solutes within the blood
Blood Colloid Osmotic Pressure (BCOP)
184
the osmotic pressure created by colloids within the interstitial fluid/space that pulls fluid out of the capillaries and into the interstitial space
Interstitial Fluid Osmotic Pressure (IFOP)
185
the process by which fluid leaves the blood vessel
Filtration
186
The equation that determines if fluid will leave or enter in that particular segment of the vessel
Net Filtration Pressure (NFP)
187
What is the Net Filtration Pressure equation?
NFP = [BHP + IFOP] - [BCOP + IFHP]
188
true or false? the NFP must be calculated for the arterial end of the capillary and for the venous end of the capillary separately
true
189
positive number for NFP =
arterial end
190
negative number for NFP =
venous end
191
when the balance of filtration and reabsorption between interstitial fluid and plasma is disrupted, an abnormal increase in interstitial fluid occurs called
edema
192
factors for the cause of edema
1. increased BHP in capillaries due to an increase in venous pressure
2. decreased concentration of plasma proteins that lowers BCOP
3. increased permeability of capillaries which allows greater amounts of plasma proteins to leave the blood and enter tissue fluid
4. increased extracellular fluid volume as a result of fluid retention or a blockage of lymphatic vessels
193
what are the main divisions of the circulatory system
pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation
194
which circulation system describes the blood flow between the heart and lungs
pulmonary circulation
195
which circulation system describes the blood flow between the heart and the rest of the body
systemic circulation
196
what type of circulation describes the routes in the preborn baby?
fetal circulation
197
systemic circulation can be split into four different circulation systems
cerebral circulation, coronary circulation, hepatic circulation, and renal circulation
198
what is the pulmonary circulation responsible for
oxygenating the blood
199
where does the pulmonary circulation direct the blood from
from the right side of the heart, to the lungs, and back to the left side of the heart
200
largest artery in the body; diameter similar to a garden hose
aorta
201
gives rise to L/R coronary artery
aortic root
202
3 arteries arise from here: brachiocephalic, L. common carotid, L subclavian
aortic arch
203
the abdominal aorta ends in a _______________________________________
bifurcation at the vertebral level of L4
204
first branch off the aortic arch
brachiocephalic artery
205
large arteries in the neck
common carotid arteries
206
this artery enters through the foramina of the skull and is the source of blood for the anterior cerebral circulation
internal carotid artery
207
this artery supplies blood to the face
external carotid artery
208
pass beneath clavicles; supply the upper chest and arm
subclavian artery
209
blood supply for the posterior cerebral circulation
vertebral arteries
210
arteries located on the inside of the anterior chest wall
internal thoracic arteries
211
most major arteries of the abdomen come directly off the aorta
abdomen pelvis
212
a central venous catheter or central line refers to a large IV tube placed in a large vein typically placed in the ____, ____, _ _______
neck, chest, or groin
213
vein for neck =
internal jugular vein
214
vein for chest =
subclavian vein
215
vein for groin =
femoral vein
216
a peripherally inserted central catheter or PICC line is a central venous catheter that the insertion site is a vein in the ___ rather than a vein in the neck or chest
arm
217
veins in arm =
basilic vein or cephalic vein
218
the venous equivalent of the aorta in that they are large-diameter vessels that return blood from the systemic circulation to the heart
venae cavae
219
short vein that drains the upper half of the body
superior vena cava
220
drains the lower half of the body
inferior vena cava
221
brachiocephalic veins are formed by the union of the internal jugular vein and the subclavian vein
true
222
two main pairs of arteries that supply blood to the brain
internal carotid artery and vertebral artery
223
the liver is unusual in that it has a _______ _______ _________
double blood supply
224
what are the two supplies of blood to the liver
common hepatic artery and the hepatic portal vein
225
the common hepatic carries oxygenated blood
to the liver
226
the hepatoportal vein carries venous blood from
the GI tract to the liver for detox and processing nutrients
227
a system that carries blood between two capillary networks
portal system
228
what is the postnatal structure for the umbilical vein
ligamentum teres
229
what is the postnatal structure for the ductus venosus
ligamentum venosum
230
what is the fetal vessel for the foramen ovale
fossa ovalis
231
what is the fetal vessel for the ductus arteriosus
the ligamentum arteriousm
232
the flow of blood within the organs and tissues of the body
hemodynamics
233
what depends on the interplay of the factors that drive and resist blood flow
distribution of blood
234
when a fluid flows through a closed channel, the flow can be either _________ or _________
smooth or rough
235
smooth fluid flowing =
laminar flow
236
rough fluid flowing =
turbulent flow
237
the normal flow of blood throughout most of the circulatory system
laminar flow
238
which type of flow is characterized by concentric layers of blood moving in parallel down the length of a blood vessel
laminar flow
239
where is the highest velocity of a vessel found?
the center
240
where is the lowest velocity of a vessel found
along the vessel wall
241
what is the flow profile of laminar flow
parabolic
242
does laminar flow create noise or not
no
243
where does laminar flow occur
in long, straight blood vessels, under steady flow conditions
244
does turbulent flow create noise or not
yes
245
the turbulence created in the heart when blood hits up against a closed valve
lubb-dubb
246
an extra or unusual sound heard during the cardiac cycle
murmur
247
a vascular murmur. abnormal sounds generated by turbulent flow of blood in an artery due to either an area of partial obstruction or a localized high rate of blood flow through an unobstructed artery
bruit
248
a vascular murmur in the carotid arteries
carotid bruit
249
the maximum force of blood recorded in the artery during ventricular contraction
systolic blood pressure (SBP)
250
the lowest pressure in the artery recorded during ventricular relaxation
diastolic blood pressure (DBP)
251
the various sounds heard while measuring a BP with a sphygmomanometer
korotkoff sounds
252
what is the normal blood pressure of a resting young adult?
110/70
253
the marking on an arterial pressure graph associated with closing of the aortic valve
dicrotic notch
254
the calculated average pressure in the arteries
mean arterial pressure or MAP
255
On a graph, the MAP is located approximately _____ of the distance between the diastolic and systolic pressures, at a value closer to the DBP
1/3
256
What else is the MAP sometimes called?
driving pressure or perfusion pressure
257
if MAP drops below 60mmHg for an extended time, what happens
ischemia, which often leads to tissue hypoxia
258
what is the equation for MAP
MAP = DBP + 1/3 Pulse Pressure
259
what are the three factors that determine vascular resistance?
vessel diameter, total vessel length, blood viscosity
260
which factor is the most significant in determining vascular resistance
vessel diameter
261
the larger the lumen, the lower the resistance to ________ ______
forward flow
262
the vessel length increases the __________ __________
vascular resistance
263
the cardiovascular center of the brain receives input from higher brain regions and from sensory receptors such as _________, __________, and ______________
proprioceptors, baroreceptors, and chemoreceptors
264
_____________ monitor movements of joints and muscles
proprioceptors
265
_____________ are important pressure-sensitive mechanoreceptors, and respond to the pressure-induced stretching of the blood vessel in which they are found
baroreceptors
266
what are the two most important baroreceptors
carotid sinus and aortic arch baroreceptors
267
the ___________ is one of the body's homeostatic mechanisms that helps maintain nearly constant BP levels
baroreflex
268
the baroreflex provides a rapid negative feedback loop in which an increased blood pressure reflexively causes ____________
a decreased heart rate
269
_____________ are sensitive to chemicals
chemoreceptors
270
______, ________, and ________ each stimulate the chemoreceptors to send impulses to the CV center, producing vasoconstriction and an increase in BP
hypoxia, hypercapnia, and acidosis
271
hormones affect BP and blood flow by altering ____, _____, and/or _______ ____________
CO, SVR, Blood Volume
272
what are three hormones that increase blood pressure?
RAA pathway, epinephrine/norepinephrine, antidiuretic hormone
273
what is a hormone that decreases blood pressure?
atrial natriuretic peptide
274
what does RAA stand for?
renin, angiotensin, aldosterone
275
this enzyme is secreted by JG cells of the kidney and catalyzes the reaction of Angiotensinogen -> Angiotensin I
Renin
276
this enzyme is an inactive plasma protein that must be converted by renin
Angiotensinogen
277
this enzyme has no physiological affect and must be converted to AT2 by ACE
Angiotensin i
278
this enzyme is located in the capillaries of the lungs and catalyzes the reaction of AT1 -> AT2
Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE)
279
this enzyme causees systemic vasoconstriction, stimulates the release of aldosterone, and stimulates the release of ADH
Angiotensin II
280
this enzyme is released from the adrenal cortex and causes Na and H2O retention by the kidneys, thus increasing total blood volume
Aldosterone
281
this hormone is released from the posterior pituitary gland, it causes kidneys to retain water and causes vasoconstriction
antidiuretic hormone
282
this hormone is secreted by the heart and is a powerful vasodilator. it also increases the excretion of NA and H2O from the kidneys.
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)
283
the heart releases ANP when BP is too ______
high
284
the kidneys release renin when BP is too ______
low
285
the advantage of intrinsic regulation is that it allows for individual organs to self-regulate based on their particular __________ ________ and _____
metabolic activity and need
286
the ability of a tissue to adjust its own blood flow to match its metabolic demand for oxygen, nutrients, and removal of wastes
autoregulation
287
the local buildup of certain chemicals acts as a metabolic control that causes terminal arterioles to dilate and relaxes the precapillary sphincters.
metabolic control
288
what do these metabolites include?
carbon dioxide, adenosine diphosphate, and acids
289
the purpose of this is to maintain appropriate blood flow
myogenic control
290
the ______ of the arterioles may also assist in autoregulation of blood flow
endothelium/nitric oxide
291
how is the brain, heart, and kidney's ability to autoregulate
high
292
how is the skeletal muscle's ability to autoregulate
moderate
293
how is the skin's ability to autoregulate
low
294
295
