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PT Elements > Anatomy Exam 2 > Flashcards

Anatomy Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

the volume of blood ejected from a ventricle with each ventricular contraction

A

stroke volume (SV)

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2
Q

the volume of blood ejected by a ventricle in 1 minute

A

cardiac output (CO)

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3
Q

What is the equation to find cardiac output?

A

CO = SV x HR

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4
Q

the potential capacity of the heart to function well beyond its basal level, in response to alterations in physiologic demands

A

cardiac reserve

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5
Q

changing the HR is the body’s principal mechanism of __________ control over CO

A

short-term

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6
Q

What factors affect heart rate?

A

autonomic nervous system, chemicals, other factors

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7
Q

what factors affect stroke volume?

A

preload, contractility, afterload

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8
Q

what is the key factor contributing to the regulation of heart rate?

A

the balance between the S-ANS and P-ANS

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9
Q

what parts in the body monitor factors that influence HR?

A

cardiovascular center, proprioceptors, baroreceptors, and chemoreceptors

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10
Q

sympathetic impulses increase the heart rate via the _____________________

A

cardiac accelerator nerve

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11
Q

where does the cardiac accelerator nerve extend from?

A

the sympathetic trunk to the SA (and AV) node

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12
Q

parasympathetic impulses decrease HR via the ___________

A

vagus nerve

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13
Q

where does the vagus nerve innervate

A

the SA (and AV) node

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14
Q

what is the neurotransmitter for postganglionic parasympathetic neurons?

A

acetylcholine

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15
Q

What are two examples of chemical regulation of HR?

A

hormones and cations

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16
Q

what are other factors that affect HR regulation?

A

age/gender, level of physical fitness, body temperature

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17
Q

the stretch of the heart before a contraction

A

preload

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18
Q

forcefulness of the squeeze

A

contractility

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19
Q

the force needed to open the aortic valve

A

afterload

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20
Q

the ability of a vessel to distend and increase volume with increasing transmural pressure

A

distensibility

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21
Q

_________ is the opposite of vascular tone

A

distensibility

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22
Q

venous distensibility is approximately ___ times larger than arterial distensibility

A

30

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23
Q

________ opposes vessel distensibility

A

vasoconstriction

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24
Q

vasoconstriction will increase ____________ to the heart

A

venous return

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25
Q

the volume of blood returned to the heart via the veins after each cardiac cycle

A

venous return

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26
Q

venous return determines the volume of blood present in the ventricle at the end of ________________

A

ventricular diastole

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27
Q

in normal conditions, venous return must ______ cardiac output

A

equal

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28
Q

what factors affect venous return

A

distensibility/vasoconstriction of the veins, total blood volume, filling time

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29
Q

What are the three primary pump mechanisms that maintain venous return

A

the cardiac pump, skeletal muscle pump, and respiratory pump

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30
Q

what is preload determined by

A

EDV

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31
Q

what does increasing preload result in

A

a stronger ventricular contraction

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32
Q

increasing venous return will increase _____, which will result in a stronger force of ____________ and an increased _________

A

EDV; ventricular contraction; SV

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33
Q

“The heart will pump what it receives”

A

Frank-Starling Law

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34
Q

what is contractility determined by

A

the tension generated by the individual ventricular fibers

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35
Q

The cardiac accelerator nerve not only innervates the nodes but it also innervates the ________________

A

contractile myocytes

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36
Q

stimulation of the cardiac accelerator nerve increases the strength of the _______ of the myocytes

A

contraction

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37
Q

chemicals that influence the contractility of the heart

A

inotropes

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38
Q

which inotropic agents increase ventricular contractility

A

positive

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39
Q

what are some examples of positive inotropic agents

A

Epi/NE; Ca; Dopamine; Digitalis

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40
Q

which inotropic agents decrease contractility

A

negative

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41
Q

what are some examples of negative inotropic agents

A

beta-blockers; Ca channel blockers; acidosis

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42
Q

what are key determinates of afterload

A

systemic vascular resistance and blood viscosity

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43
Q

the resistance to blood flow created by the blood vessels of the systemic circulatory system

A

systemic vascular resistance

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44
Q

systemic vascular resistance is largely influenced by what?

A

the S-ANS

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45
Q

what does SVR control

A

the degree of vasoconstriction of small blood vessels

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46
Q

the thickness of a fluid

A

viscosity

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47
Q

increasing blood viscosity increases _________

A

afterload

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48
Q

the Frank-Starling curves are based on the ______________________________

A

degree of contractility and afterload of the heart

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49
Q

the physiological process involving the growth of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels

A

angiogenesis

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50
Q

what does angiogenesis help with?

A

growth and development, as well as wound healing

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51
Q

angiogenesis is a fundamental step in the transition of tumors from a _______ state to a _________ state

A

dormant; malignant

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52
Q

what are the five general types of blood vessels?

A

arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins

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53
Q

at any given time, over _____ of the total blood volume in the body is found in the veins/venules

A

50%

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54
Q

the liver, spleen, and skin function as _______ _____________

A

blood reservoirs

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55
Q

arteries = ________

A

distribution

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56
Q

arterioles = ____________

A

resistance

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57
Q

capillaries = _____________

A

exchange

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58
Q

veins = _________

A

capacitance

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59
Q

a tissue’s ability to regain its original shape and size after being stretched, squeezed, or otherwise deformed

A

elasticity

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60
Q

the ability of a vessel to decrease lumen size by activation of vascular smooth muscle within the vessel wall

A

contractility

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61
Q

the ability of a hollow organ to distend and increase volume with increasing transmural pressure; or the tendency of a hollow organ to resist recoil when under a distending force

A

compliance

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62
Q

the compliance of a blood vessel describes its _____________

A

dispensability

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63
Q

compliance is proportional to _________

A

elasticity

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64
Q

the ability to hold large volumes of fluid

A

capacitance

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65
Q

the greater the amount of elastic tissue in a ______ _______, the greater the ________, and the smaller the _________

A

blood vessel; elasticity; compliance

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66
Q

the ability to hold large volumes of fluid

A

capacitance

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67
Q

____ are capacitance vessels

A

veins

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68
Q

compared to veins, arteries have more ___________ in their vessel walls

A

elastic tissue

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69
Q

arteries = ________ _______

A

elastic recoil

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70
Q

veins =

A

compliance & capacitance

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71
Q

what are the three layers of the wall of the blood vessel

A

tunica intima, tunica media, and tunic externa

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72
Q

capillaries only have a _____ _______

A

tunica intima

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73
Q

the layer of the blood vessel wall closest to the lumen

A

tunica intima

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74
Q

which layer of the blood vessel has direct contact with the blood

A

tunica intima

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75
Q

the tunica intima consists of both __________ and a _______ __________

A

epithelium; basement membrane

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76
Q

the specialized squamous epithelial layer of the tunica intima is called the __________

A

endothelium

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77
Q

damage to the endothelial lining and exposure of blood to the collage fibers beneath this layer is a primary cause of ______ ______ __________

A

blood clot formation

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78
Q

large arteries also have a thick, distinct layer of elastic fibers known as _________ ________ ___________

A

internal elastic lamina

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79
Q

which layer of the blood vessel wall is the thickest layer

A

tunica media

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80
Q

which wall consists primarily of smooth muscle supported by elastic CT fibers

A

the tunica media

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81
Q

the smooth muscle in the tunica media makes it possible for vessels to ________ and ________

A

vasoconstrict and vasodilate

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82
Q

a mild S-ANS stimulation, causing a slight vasoconstriction in most vasculature at rest

A

vascular tone

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83
Q

when sympathetic influence increases, ___________ ________

A

vasoconstriction increases

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84
Q

when sympathetic stimulation is withdrawn, ________ __________

A

vessels vasodilate

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85
Q

alpha receptors = _____________

A

vasoconstriction

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86
Q

beta receptors = _____________

A

vasodilation

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87
Q

the nerves that innervate the vascular smooth muscle are called ______ ________

A

nervi vasorum

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88
Q

nervi vasorum run within the walls of blood vessels and are generally all ________ _______

A

sympathetic fibers

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89
Q

the large arteries also have a thick, distinct ______ _______ __________

A

external elastic lamina

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90
Q

the layer of the blood vessel wall that consists primarily of collagen CT fibers and forms the outer protective layer

A

tunica externa

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91
Q

the tunica externa also contains ____ _________ that supply oxygen and nutrients to the vessel wall

A

vasa vasorum

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92
Q

arteries carry blood ____ from the heart to the tissues

A

away

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93
Q

arteries, functionally, posses both ________ and __________

A

elasticity and contractility

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94
Q

elasticity allows arteries to ___________________________

A

accept blood under great pressure

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95
Q

_________ _________ can limit bleeding from a wounded vessel

A

localized contractility

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96
Q

the arteries with the largest diameter

A

large/elastic arteries

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97
Q

which vessels can accommodate the high pressures generated during ventricular systole

A

large/elastic fibers

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98
Q

which vessels elastic recoil aids in propelling blood forward during ventricular diastole

A

large/elastic fibers

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99
Q

list six elastic arteries

A
  1. aorta
  2. pulmonary trunk, and R/L pulmonary artery
  3. brachiocephalic trunk
  4. R/L common carotid artery
  5. R/L subclavian artery
  6. R/L common iliac artery
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100
Q

medium-sized arteries that contain more smooth muscle than elastic fibers in their tunica media

A

medium/muscular arteries

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101
Q

which arteries are referred to as distributing arteries

A

medium/muscular arteries

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102
Q

very small, almost microscopic vessels

A

arterioles

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103
Q

very slight changes in smooth muscle tone can significantly change their _____ ____

A

lumen size

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104
Q

arterials are critical in slowing down ______ _____

A

blood flow

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105
Q

what are arterioles called

A

resistance vessels

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106
Q

factors that affect arteriolar lumen size

A

S-ANS and chemicals

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107
Q

Because lumen size is a determinate of vascular resistance, the S-ANS assumes a key regulatory function in _______ ________ and thus in regulating _____ ______

A

vascular resistance and blood flow

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108
Q

what chemicals cause vasodilation

A

nitric oxide, carbon dioxide, lactic acid, histamine

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109
Q

what are two powerful vasoconstrictors?

A

angiotensin II and vasopressin

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110
Q

microscopic vessels that connect arterioles to venules

A

capillaries

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111
Q

is pressure within the capillaries low or high

A

very low

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112
Q

the process of allowing exchange of nutrients and wastes between the blood and tissue cells through the interstitial fluid

A

capillary exchange

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113
Q

what is the primary function of capillaries?

A

capillary exchange

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114
Q

capillaries are often referred to as ?

A

exchange vessels

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115
Q

what are the three mechanisms that capillary exchange is accomplished?

A
  1. Diffusion (simple or facilitated)
  2. Vesicular Transport (aka transcytosis)
  3. Bulk Flow
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116
Q

in most regions, capillaries branch to form an extensive ________ ________ throughout the tissue

A

capillary network

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117
Q

The capillary network increases the total surface area across these exchange vessels, allowing a _______________________________

A

rapid exchange of large quantities of materials

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118
Q

the process of supplying blood to the target tissue

A

perfusion

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119
Q

the flow of blood through the capillaries

A

microcirculation

120
Q

what is microcirculation regulated by?

A

arterioles and precapillary sphincters

121
Q

the ability of tissue to locally and automatically adjust its own blood flow through its capillaries in order to match its metabolic demands

A

autoregulation

122
Q

what are the three types of capillaries?

A

continuous, fenestrated, and sinusoidal(discontinuous)

123
Q

what are capillaries composed of?

A

simple squamous epithelium and a basement membrane

124
Q

which type of capillary is the least porous

A

continous

125
Q

which type of capillary has extremely high permeability

A

sinusoidal

126
Q

continuous blood capillaries have the ___________ intercellular clefts and sinusoidal blood capillaries have the _________ intercellular clefts

A

smallest; largest

127
Q

the pressure in a capillary is at the highest at ?

A

the intercellular cleft at the arterial end

128
Q

what two forces achieve capillary fluid dynamics

A

hydrostatic pressure and colloid osmotic pressure

129
Q

the space between two adjacent endothelial cells

A

intercellular clefets

130
Q

minute openings in the surface of the endothelial cells through which gases, liquids, or microscopic particles can pass

A

pores (aka circular fenestrae)

131
Q

which two types of capillaries have a complete basement membrane

A

continuous and fenestrated

132
Q

which capillary has a discontinuous basement membrane

A

sinusoidal

133
Q

which type of capillary has no pores, and no gaps in the basement membrane?

A

continuous

134
Q

true or false? the majority of our capillaries are continuous

A

true

135
Q

continuous capillaries use _________ _________ for the movement of many substances across its single-celled layer

A

vesicular transport

136
Q

a barrier separating the circulating blood from the CSF

A

Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)

137
Q

What is unique about the Blood-Brain Barrier?

A

It has no intracellular clefts, very few transport vesicles, and a thickened basement membrane

138
Q

the capillary exchange of most substances is blocked, with the exception of four things?

A
  1. water
  2. glucose
  3. necessary amino acids
  4. some ions
139
Q

fenestrated capillaries have pores in the endothelial cells that allow _____ _________ and limited amounts of ______ to diffuse through

A

small molecules; protein

140
Q

examples of where fenestrated capillaries are located

A

small intestines, kidneys, choroid plexus, and several endocrine structures

141
Q

the pores in sinusoidal capillaries are larger to allow _______ and various ________________ to pass through

A

RBCs; larger serum proteins

142
Q

examples of where sinusoidal capillaries are located

A

liver, spleen, bone marrow

143
Q

what is the relationship between sinusoidal capillaries and the liver?

A

it’s where many plasma proteins are synthesized

144
Q

what is the relationship between sinusoidal capillaries and the spleen?

A

it’s where worn-out RBCs and platelets are taken out of circulation

145
Q

what is the relationship between bone marrow and sinusoidal capillaries?

A

it’s where RBCs and platelets are put into the bloodstream

146
Q

small vessels that are formed from the union of several capillaries

A

venules

147
Q

where are venules located

A

at the end of a capillary network

148
Q

venules merge to form ________

A

veins

149
Q

veins have much less _______ and ________ as arteries

A

elastic tissue and smooth muscle

150
Q

in comparison to arteries, veins have much thinner ______ and a _______ ________

A

walls; larger lumen

151
Q

true or false? veins offer little resistance to blood flow

A

true

152
Q

veins contain valves to prevent the ______ _____ __________

A

backflow of blood

153
Q

weak valves can lead to what?

A

varicose veins

154
Q

the pressure you feel when taking your pulse

A

pulse pressure

155
Q

how is pulse pressure calculated?

A

taking the difference between systolic and diastolic BP

156
Q

the arterial pulse pressure is greatly reduced across the arterioles, and is completely _______ by the time it reaches the capillaries

A

dampened

157
Q

a direct connection between two tubular structures

A

anastomosis (or shunt)

158
Q

naturally occurring arterial anastomoses connect the distal ends of the radial and ulnar arteries, providing collateral circulation to regions of the hands

A

deep and superficial volar (palmar) arches

159
Q

the skin uses _________ ___________ _____ to reduce heat loss

A

physiologic arteriovenous shuts

160
Q

A ______ _________ ________ might be used when treating a patient with colon cancer

A

surgical ileorectal anastomosis

161
Q

diffusion is the most important mechanism for _______ _________

A

capillary exchange

162
Q

diffusion of a molecule is directly related to the ______ _____ available for diffusion and the ______ ________ across the barrier

A

surface area; concentration gradient

163
Q

which type of capillary exchange includes both endocytosis and exocytosis and involves the movement of macromolecules across capillary endothelium via the use of vesicles

A

vesicular transport (aka transcytosis)

164
Q

the movement of a fluid and substances down a pressure gradient

A

bulk flow

165
Q

____ _____ is bidirectional depending on the net filtration pressure derived from the 4 starling forces

A

bulk flow

166
Q

what does bulk flow occur through

A

pores and intercellular clefts

167
Q

is bulk flow passive or active transport

A

passive

168
Q

when moving from the bloodstream into the interstitium, bulk flow is termed _________

A

filtration

169
Q

when moving from the interstitium into the bloodstream, the process is termed _________

A

reabsorption

170
Q

for bulk flow, changes in _______ _______ _______ and in the _____ ___ ______ ___ _________ _____ will alter exchange

A

pressure driving forces; size of pores or intercellular clefts

171
Q

bulk flow is most important for ______ __________ between the vascular and interstitial space and is particularly important in the _________

A

fluid regulation; kidney

172
Q

the pressures that work toward equilibrium and which influence the exiting and entering of fluid are collectively described by

A

Starling’s Law of the Capillaries

173
Q

our blood plasma is a _____ _______ of largely fluid and proteins, where the proteins are the ______ _______.

A

colloidal mixture; colloid solutes

174
Q

the most abundant and therefore significant protein colloid in our blood is ________

A

albumin

175
Q

the movement of fluid across the walls of capillaries depends on the interplay of ________ and _________ ________

A

hydrostatic and osmotic pressures

176
Q

the pressure exerted by a column of fluid

A

hydrostatic pressure

177
Q

a PUSH fluid

A

hydrostatic pressure

178
Q

the pressure of blood pushing against the walls of the capillaries

A

Blood Hydrostatic Pressure (BHP)

179
Q

the pressure exerted by the interstitial fluid against the outside of the capillaries

A

Interstitial Fluid Hydrostatic Pressure (IFHP)

180
Q

the pressure exerted by solutes within a fluid

A

osmotic pressure

181
Q

the higher the albumin concentration, the greater the ________ __________

A

osmotic pressure

182
Q

PULL pressure

A

Osmotic Pressure

183
Q

the osmotic pressure created by the solutes within the blood

A

Blood Colloid Osmotic Pressure (BCOP)

184
Q

the osmotic pressure created by colloids within the interstitial fluid/space that pulls fluid out of the capillaries and into the interstitial space

A

Interstitial Fluid Osmotic Pressure (IFOP)

185
Q

the process by which fluid leaves the blood vessel

A

Filtration

186
Q

The equation that determines if fluid will leave or enter in that particular segment of the vessel

A

Net Filtration Pressure (NFP)

187
Q

What is the Net Filtration Pressure equation?

A

NFP = [BHP + IFOP] - [BCOP + IFHP]

188
Q

true or false? the NFP must be calculated for the arterial end of the capillary and for the venous end of the capillary separately

A

true

189
Q

positive number for NFP =

A

arterial end

190
Q

negative number for NFP =

A

venous end

191
Q

when the balance of filtration and reabsorption between interstitial fluid and plasma is disrupted, an abnormal increase in interstitial fluid occurs called

A

edema

192
Q

factors for the cause of edema

A
  1. increased BHP in capillaries due to an increase in venous pressure
  2. decreased concentration of plasma proteins that lowers BCOP
  3. increased permeability of capillaries which allows greater amounts of plasma proteins to leave the blood and enter tissue fluid
  4. increased extracellular fluid volume as a result of fluid retention or a blockage of lymphatic vessels
193
Q

what are the main divisions of the circulatory system

A

pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation

194
Q

which circulation system describes the blood flow between the heart and lungs

A

pulmonary circulation

195
Q

which circulation system describes the blood flow between the heart and the rest of the body

A

systemic circulation

196
Q

what type of circulation describes the routes in the preborn baby?

A

fetal circulation

197
Q

systemic circulation can be split into four different circulation systems

A

cerebral circulation, coronary circulation, hepatic circulation, and renal circulation

198
Q

what is the pulmonary circulation responsible for

A

oxygenating the blood

199
Q

where does the pulmonary circulation direct the blood from

A

from the right side of the heart, to the lungs, and back to the left side of the heart

200
Q

largest artery in the body; diameter similar to a garden hose

A

aorta

201
Q

gives rise to L/R coronary artery

A

aortic root

202
Q

3 arteries arise from here: brachiocephalic, L. common carotid, L subclavian

A

aortic arch

203
Q

the abdominal aorta ends in a _______________________________________

A

bifurcation at the vertebral level of L4

204
Q

first branch off the aortic arch

A

brachiocephalic artery

205
Q

large arteries in the neck

A

common carotid arteries

206
Q

this artery enters through the foramina of the skull and is the source of blood for the anterior cerebral circulation

A

internal carotid artery

207
Q

this artery supplies blood to the face

A

external carotid artery

208
Q

pass beneath clavicles; supply the upper chest and arm

A

subclavian artery

209
Q

blood supply for the posterior cerebral circulation

A

vertebral arteries

210
Q

arteries located on the inside of the anterior chest wall

A

internal thoracic arteries

211
Q

most major arteries of the abdomen come directly off the aorta

A

abdomen pelvis

212
Q

a central venous catheter or central line refers to a large IV tube placed in a large vein typically placed in the ____, ____, _ _______

A

neck, chest, or groin

213
Q

vein for neck =

A

internal jugular vein

214
Q

vein for chest =

A

subclavian vein

215
Q

vein for groin =

A

femoral vein

216
Q

a peripherally inserted central catheter or PICC line is a central venous catheter that the insertion site is a vein in the ___ rather than a vein in the neck or chest

A

arm

217
Q

veins in arm =

A

basilic vein or cephalic vein

218
Q

the venous equivalent of the aorta in that they are large-diameter vessels that return blood from the systemic circulation to the heart

A

venae cavae

219
Q

short vein that drains the upper half of the body

A

superior vena cava

220
Q

drains the lower half of the body

A

inferior vena cava

221
Q

brachiocephalic veins are formed by the union of the internal jugular vein and the subclavian vein

A

true

222
Q

two main pairs of arteries that supply blood to the brain

A

internal carotid artery and vertebral artery

223
Q

the liver is unusual in that it has a _______ _______ _________

A

double blood supply

224
Q

what are the two supplies of blood to the liver

A

common hepatic artery and the hepatic portal vein

225
Q

the common hepatic carries oxygenated blood

A

to the liver

226
Q

the hepatoportal vein carries venous blood from

A

the GI tract to the liver for detox and processing nutrients

227
Q

a system that carries blood between two capillary networks

A

portal system

228
Q

what is the postnatal structure for the umbilical vein

A

ligamentum teres

229
Q

what is the postnatal structure for the ductus venosus

A

ligamentum venosum

230
Q

what is the fetal vessel for the foramen ovale

A

fossa ovalis

231
Q

what is the fetal vessel for the ductus arteriosus

A

the ligamentum arteriousm

232
Q

the flow of blood within the organs and tissues of the body

A

hemodynamics

233
Q

what depends on the interplay of the factors that drive and resist blood flow

A

distribution of blood

234
Q

when a fluid flows through a closed channel, the flow can be either _________ or _________

A

smooth or rough

235
Q

smooth fluid flowing =

A

laminar flow

236
Q

rough fluid flowing =

A

turbulent flow

237
Q

the normal flow of blood throughout most of the circulatory system

A

laminar flow

238
Q

which type of flow is characterized by concentric layers of blood moving in parallel down the length of a blood vessel

A

laminar flow

239
Q

where is the highest velocity of a vessel found?

A

the center

240
Q

where is the lowest velocity of a vessel found

A

along the vessel wall

241
Q

what is the flow profile of laminar flow

A

parabolic

242
Q

does laminar flow create noise or not

A

no

243
Q

where does laminar flow occur

A

in long, straight blood vessels, under steady flow conditions

244
Q

does turbulent flow create noise or not

A

yes

245
Q

the turbulence created in the heart when blood hits up against a closed valve

A

lubb-dubb

246
Q

an extra or unusual sound heard during the cardiac cycle

A

murmur

247
Q

a vascular murmur. abnormal sounds generated by turbulent flow of blood in an artery due to either an area of partial obstruction or a localized high rate of blood flow through an unobstructed artery

A

bruit

248
Q

a vascular murmur in the carotid arteries

A

carotid bruit

249
Q

the maximum force of blood recorded in the artery during ventricular contraction

A

systolic blood pressure (SBP)

250
Q

the lowest pressure in the artery recorded during ventricular relaxation

A

diastolic blood pressure (DBP)

251
Q

the various sounds heard while measuring a BP with a sphygmomanometer

A

korotkoff sounds

252
Q

what is the normal blood pressure of a resting young adult?

A

110/70

253
Q

the marking on an arterial pressure graph associated with closing of the aortic valve

A

dicrotic notch

254
Q

the calculated average pressure in the arteries

A

mean arterial pressure or MAP

255
Q

On a graph, the MAP is located approximately _____ of the distance between the diastolic and systolic pressures, at a value closer to the DBP

A

1/3

256
Q

What else is the MAP sometimes called?

A

driving pressure or perfusion pressure

257
Q

if MAP drops below 60mmHg for an extended time, what happens

A

ischemia, which often leads to tissue hypoxia

258
Q

what is the equation for MAP

A

MAP = DBP + 1/3 Pulse Pressure

259
Q

what are the three factors that determine vascular resistance?

A

vessel diameter, total vessel length, blood viscosity

260
Q

which factor is the most significant in determining vascular resistance

A

vessel diameter

261
Q

the larger the lumen, the lower the resistance to ________ ______

A

forward flow

262
Q

the vessel length increases the __________ __________

A

vascular resistance

263
Q

the cardiovascular center of the brain receives input from higher brain regions and from sensory receptors such as _________, __________, and ______________

A

proprioceptors, baroreceptors, and chemoreceptors

264
Q

_____________ monitor movements of joints and muscles

A

proprioceptors

265
Q

_____________ are important pressure-sensitive mechanoreceptors, and respond to the pressure-induced stretching of the blood vessel in which they are found

A

baroreceptors

266
Q

what are the two most important baroreceptors

A

carotid sinus and aortic arch baroreceptors

267
Q

the ___________ is one of the body’s homeostatic mechanisms that helps maintain nearly constant BP levels

A

baroreflex

268
Q

the baroreflex provides a rapid negative feedback loop in which an increased blood pressure reflexively causes ____________

A

a decreased heart rate

269
Q

_____________ are sensitive to chemicals

A

chemoreceptors

270
Q

______, ________, and ________ each stimulate the chemoreceptors to send impulses to the CV center, producing vasoconstriction and an increase in BP

A

hypoxia, hypercapnia, and acidosis

271
Q

hormones affect BP and blood flow by altering ____, _____, and/or _______ ____________

A

CO, SVR, Blood Volume

272
Q

what are three hormones that increase blood pressure?

A

RAA pathway, epinephrine/norepinephrine, antidiuretic hormone

273
Q

what is a hormone that decreases blood pressure?

A

atrial natriuretic peptide

274
Q

what does RAA stand for?

A

renin, angiotensin, aldosterone

275
Q

this enzyme is secreted by JG cells of the kidney and catalyzes the reaction of Angiotensinogen -> Angiotensin I

A

Renin

276
Q

this enzyme is an inactive plasma protein that must be converted by renin

A

Angiotensinogen

277
Q

this enzyme has no physiological affect and must be converted to AT2 by ACE

A

Angiotensin i

278
Q

this enzyme is located in the capillaries of the lungs and catalyzes the reaction of AT1 -> AT2

A

Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE)

279
Q

this enzyme causees systemic vasoconstriction, stimulates the release of aldosterone, and stimulates the release of ADH

A

Angiotensin II

280
Q

this enzyme is released from the adrenal cortex and causes Na and H2O retention by the kidneys, thus increasing total blood volume

A

Aldosterone

281
Q

this hormone is released from the posterior pituitary gland, it causes kidneys to retain water and causes vasoconstriction

A

antidiuretic hormone

282
Q

this hormone is secreted by the heart and is a powerful vasodilator. it also increases the excretion of NA and H2O from the kidneys.

A

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)

283
Q

the heart releases ANP when BP is too ______

A

high

284
Q

the kidneys release renin when BP is too ______

A

low

285
Q

the advantage of intrinsic regulation is that it allows for individual organs to self-regulate based on their particular __________ ________ and _____

A

metabolic activity and need

286
Q

the ability of a tissue to adjust its own blood flow to match its metabolic demand for oxygen, nutrients, and removal of wastes

A

autoregulation

287
Q

the local buildup of certain chemicals acts as a metabolic control that causes terminal arterioles to dilate and relaxes the precapillary sphincters.

A

metabolic control

288
Q

what do these metabolites include?

A

carbon dioxide, adenosine diphosphate, and acids

289
Q

the purpose of this is to maintain appropriate blood flow

A

myogenic control

290
Q

the ______ of the arterioles may also assist in autoregulation of blood flow

A

endothelium/nitric oxide

291
Q

how is the brain, heart, and kidney’s ability to autoregulate

A

high

292
Q

how is the skeletal muscle’s ability to autoregulate

A

moderate

293
Q

how is the skin’s ability to autoregulate

A

low

294
Q
A
295
Q
A

PT Elements (43 decks)

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