Topic 107 - Memory and learning, unconditioned and conditioned reflexes

Question 1

Words to include in unconditioned and conditioned reflexes

Answer 1

• Motor response
• Exterior stimuli
• Interior stimuli
• Herditary
• Acquired
• Unconditioned reflex
  
  • Skinner’s dog experiment
    
    • Salivation
  • Congenital motor response to external stimuli
  • Secretory response
  • Reinforcement
  • Protective inhibition
• Conditional reflexes
  
  • Neural stimulus to unconditioned stimulus
  • Reinforcement
    
    • Positive stimuli
    • Negative stimuli
• Protective inhibition
  
  • Reflex
  • Threshold
  • Conditioned reflex
• Operant reflex
  
  • Conditooned reflex
    
    • Postive reinforcement
    • Negative reinforcement
  • Reinforcement
    
    • Positive
    • Negative
      
      • Escape
      • Active avoidance
  • Punishment
    
    • Positive
    • Negative

Question 2

Words to include in memory and learning

Answer 2

• Imprinting
• Kinesthetic learning
  
  • Learned behavioral pattern
• Phases of memory
  
  • Short-term memory
    
    • Frontal lobe
      
      • Association cortex
      • Thalamus
      • Reticular formation
    • Neuronal reverberation circuits
      
      • Memory trace
    • Alpha-2-adrenergic receptiors
  • Middle-term meory
    
    • Medial temporal lobe
      
      • Limbic system
        
        • Hippocampus
        • Amygdala
    • Learning associated with emotions and vegetative functions
    • Long Term Potentiation (LTP)
  • Long-term memory
    
    • Diffuse cortical distribution
    • Association cortex
    • Engrams
      
      • Biochemical and morphological changes
    • Synaptic plasticity
    • External stimuli
      
      • Repeated frequently
• Retrieval and formation of memory
  
  • Encoding / registration
    
    • Receiving
    • Processing
    • Combining of received information
  • Storage
    
    • Creation of permanent record
  • Retrieval, recal or recollection
• Types of memory
  
  • Produced memory
    
    • Implicit memory
    • Below the level of conscious awareness
    • Long-term memory
  • Declarative memory
    
    • Explicit memory
    • Epsodic memory
      
      • Personal experiences
    • Semantic memory
      
      • Factual information
• Cellular theories
  
  • Simple learning
  • Molecular processes
    
    • Habituation
      
      • Transmitter release ↓
    • Sensitization
• Hippocampus
  
  • Single stimulus
    
    • Glutamatergic receptors
      
      • NMDA-n-methyl-D-asparate
      • Non-NMDA
        
        • Post-synaptic membrane
    • Long-term neuronal stimulation
    • Pre-synaptic stimulation
  • Long term stimulus
    
    • Long-term pre-synaptic stimulation
    • Prolonged depolarization
    • Non-NMDA receptor
    • NMDA-linked cation channels
    • Calcium signal
    • Post-synaptic cell
    • Retrograde signals

Question 3

Unconditioned and conditioned reflexes

Unconditioned reflex

Answer 3

• Unconditione reflex: when congenital motor or secretory response to external stimuli, always performed in the same way
• Skinner’s dog experiment: saliva was secreted by the parotid gland when expecting food

Question 4

Unconditioned and conditioned reflexes

Conditional reflex

Answer 4

• Conditioned reflex: An acquired response where the subject learns to associate a previously unrelated neural stimulus with a different stimulus that elicits some kind of reaction
  
  • In time the neural stimulus will be connected to the unconditioned stimulus, and will alone evoke the same reflex as the unconditioned stimulus
• Reinforcement is needed to kee the conditioned reflex​
  
  • Either positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement
• The conditioned reflex can be inhibited by either external or internal factors
• Protective inhibition: The stronger the conditioned stimulus, the stronger the reflex. However, above a certain threshold (e.g.: too loud sound stimulus) the conditioned reflex, originally initiated by sound, is inhibited
• Operant reflex: If the reinforcement is not caused by the experiment, but the animal itself
  
  • To build up a conditioned reflex, pleasent and unpleaset stimuli equally can be used.
    
    • Positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement

Question 5

Unconditioned and conditioned reflexes

Operant reflex

Answer 5

• To build up a conditioned reflex, pleasent and unpleasent stimuli can be used - positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement
• In operant conditioning, stimuli present when a behavior is rewarded or punished come to control that behavior

Question 6

Memory and learning

Imprinting

Answer 6

Imprinting: Traces of some vitally important stimuli and signals can be stored in memory for a lifetime, even if the animal encounters them only once

Question 7

Memory and learning

Phases of memory

Answer 7

• Short-term memory
  
  • ​Connected to the frontal lobe
    
    • ​Association cortex
    • Thalamus
    • Reticular formation
  • With the generation of neural reverberation circuits
  • Alpha-2-adrenergic receptor (role in formation of short-term memory)
• Middle-term memory
  
  • ​Memory for hours, days or longer
  • Connected to:
    
    • Medial temporal lobe
      
      • ​Hippocampus
      • Amygdala
  • The hippocampus and amygdala are a part of the limbic system, and are the most important structures of learning associated with emotions and vegetative functions
  • NMDA receptors and LTP (Long Term Potential)
• Long-term memory
  
  • ​Location: diffuse cortical distribution
  • This memory can not be erased
  • It is a result of diffuse co-operation of the whole association cortex
  • Synaptic plasticity
    
    • Engrams: Repitedly reinforced stimuli generate biochemical and morphological changes

Question 8

Memory and learning

Give the stages in the formation and retrieval of memory

Answer 8

1. Encoding or registration
   
   • ​​Receiving, processingandcombining of received information
2. Storage
   
   • ​​Creation of permanent record of the encoded information
3. Retrieval, recall or recollection​​
   
   • Calling back the stored information

Question 9

Memory and learning

Give the types of memory

Answer 9

• Procedural memory (implicit memory)
  
  • Memory from the performance of particular types of actions
  • Usually resides below the level of conscious awareness
  • Long-term memory
  • E.g. tying shoes, reading
• Declarative memory (explicit memory)
  
  • Memories that can me consciously recalled such as facts and knowledge
  • Can be divided into two categories:
    
    1. Episodic memory (personal experiences)
    2. Semantic memory (factual information)

Question 10

Memory and learning

Cellular theories: Give the types of simple learning

Answer 10

• The two types of simple learning:
  
  • Habituation (tilvenning)
  • Sensitization

Question 11

Memory and learning

Long-term potential

Answer 11

Hippocampus

• The hippocampus have two types of glutamatergic receptors:
  
  • ​NMDA n-methyl-D-asparate
  • Non-NMDA
• The NMDA glutamate receptor can be stimulated under two conditions:
  
  • Depolarization of the post-synaptic membrane
  • Transmission of a large amount of glutamate
• Long-term potential: long-lasting strengthening of synapses between nerve cells, used to explain long-term memory
  
  • ​The strong, sustained stimulus ‘leaves a trace behind’ (for hours or days) even after its ceasing

Question 12

Memory and learning

Long-term potential: single stimulus

Answer 12

• A single or less intensive pre-synaptic stimulation leads to opening of the non-NMDA glutamate receptor on the post-synaptic membrane
• Therefore, only a short-term AP transmission occurs from the post-synaptic neuron

Question 13

Memory and learning

Long-term potential: long term stimulus

Answer 13

• Long-lasting pre-synaptic stimulation cause a prolonged depolarization through the non-NMDA receptor, releasing NMDA-linked cation channel from the inhibitory effect of magnesium, and opening it
• It therefore evokes a long-lasting calcium signal in the post-synaptic cell
  
  • ​Result:
    
    • Frequent AP firing of the post-synaptic neuron
    • Retrograde signals
      
      • ​May maintain the increased activity for a longer time