psychological factors influencing an individual (achievement motivation, confidence, self efficacy, leadership, stress management and attribution theory) Flashcards
achievement motivation, confidence, self efficacy, leadership, stress management and attribution theory
what is achievement motivation
The tendency to approach or avoid competitive situations. Summed up as the Drive to Succeed minus the Fear of Failure
what are the two personality dimensions for atkinsons achievement motivation theory
need to achieve (NACH)
need to avoid failure (NAF)
what is need to achieve (NACH) inc eg
it is approach behaviour
perseverance and determination when difficulties arise.
enthusiastic about competition
take risks
confident
task persistent
welcome feedback and evaluation
wants to improve and be the best
attributes success internally
tries to seek pride and self satisfaction.
eg volunteering to take a penalty in a shootout, wants to take responsibility for score.
complete task quickly, persevere, choose challenging task, enjoys performing in front of others
what does attributing success internally mean
Giving a reason for success that is due to the responsibility of the player
what is need to avoid failure (NAF) inc eg
seek safe and secure options (easy route).
dont like to take risks
lack confidence
perceive comp as too difficult
give up easily
blame others for failure
avoid 50/50 challenges
dont like feedback/eval
avoid situations where they would be responsible for result.
eg not wanting to bat in a game of cricket incase they got a low score.
formula for achievement motivation
AM = the drive to succeed - the fear of failure
the coach and captain must motivate players to perform in competitive situations and encourage them to believe in their own ability.
explain the factors that contribute to a performer’s level of achievement motivation (3)
achievement motivation=desire to succeed - fear of failure.
interactionist approach/depends on the personality AND the situation.
personality either nAch or nAf
situation- probability of success/incentive value of success
what does achievement motivation depend on
the interaction between personality and incentive value of the situation
“risk and reward”
naf/nach are situation dependent
how do coaches develop nach
Reinforcement
Attribute success internally
Allowing success
Improving confidence
Goal setting (Realistic yet challenging and task related not outcome)
on a graph of Y- incentive value of success and X- probability of success where are nach and naf placed
NACH at the top left
NAF bottom right
decline
what is achievement goal theory
Motivation and persistence are dependent on the type of goals set by the performer and how they measure success
what are the types of goal involved in AGT and explain them
outcome goal: It doesn’t matter how, just if goal is reached
If succeed = pride and satisfaction achieved
If fail = lower confidence
task orientated: Process of success against own standards
Regardless of result if goal achieved confidence is maintained
Needs to consider perceived level of ability
List three characteristics of a performer who displays approach behaviour
Confident, task persistent, likes feedback and evaluation, takes risks, welcomes challenge, attributes success internally
List three characteristics of a performer who shows the need to avoid failure
Gives up easily, avoids feedback, takes the easy option, protects self-esteem
Name three things that influence the level of achievement motivation
Personality: Nach or Naf, combined with the probability of success and the incentive value of the task
Suggest three things a coach could do to develop the need to achieve
Set goals that are realistic yet challenging, set task related goals, allow success, use reinforcement, improve confidence
what is confidence
a belief in the ability to master a task
what does confidence lead to
trying harder
Taking more risks
Approach behaviour
More likely to win
what is confidence the interaction between/the result of inc eg
Experience
Situation
Personality
eg Facing a bowler you have previously dominated
what are the 2 types of confidence relating to personality
trait and state confidence
what is trait confidence
consistent level of confidence shown in most situations,
player is happy to play and has low anxiety.
How a performer rates their ability to perform across a wide range of sports / in that sport
what is state confidence
situation specific, temporary, varies depending on interaction influences.
How performer rates their ability to perform at a particular moment.
what does vealeys model of sports confidence refer to
Confidence when performing or developing skills
VM- what is an objective sporting situation and what does it then form
it is combining the skill type and the situation using trait confidence and competitive orientation
The performer takes into account the situation in which the task is being undertaken
forms the state sport confidence (situational)
what is competitive orientation
the degree to which a performer is drawn to challenging situations
explain VM of confidence
If previously successful in a similar situation = higher levels of confidence
If in competition and successful then creation of increased competitive orientation (CO)
If subjective judgement is good then = higher TC and CO, if bad then TC and CO decrease
Using a sporting example, explain how you would increase the confidence of a sports performer using Vealey’s model
The athlete approaches the sporting situation with a degree of trait confidence and a level of competitiveness related to the goal they wish to achieve.
These two influences produces a state confidence related to the current sporting situation.
Performance will be affected by the level of state confidence and then the performer, internally in terms of how the outcome was perceived and the causes of the result, can make an evaluation of the result.
The evaluations made by the performer can then influence future competitiveness and the amount of future trait confidence
is a penalty taker is successful in a high pressure situation with a crowd what will this do to them
Trait confidence improved
Would want to take penalties in the future
Rates chances of doing well in other sports would also be increased
(How confident you are in a given sporting situation)
what is self-efficacy
situational self-confidence
The belief in your ability to master a specific sporting situation
what does self-efficacy result in
Increased confidence
Sense of satisfaction
Inner pride
Willingness to compete and persist is increased
what are the factors affecting self-efficacy
performance accomplishments
vicarious experience
verbal persuasion
emotional arousal
how does performance accomplishments affect SE/what is it, inc eg
it is what youve achieved already
Example: previous success against an opposition
High jumper jumping 1.20, having jumped 1.30 in training would feel high levels of self efficacy
what is vicarious experience and how does it affect SE inc eg
Seeing others doing the task
Especially if of same ability will make the task look easier to complete
Example: Seeing a friend do a drop in mountain biking, who is similar ability will encourage you to think you can do it
what is verbal persuasion and how does it affect SE
Encouragement from others
Coach or fellow player praising a player for success will give the player confidence and a real incentive to repeat the successful attempt
If held in high esteem = even greater chance of a repeat
Builds confidence for future attempts
what is emotional arousal and how does it affect SE inc eg
A perception of the effects of anxiety on performance
How you deal with arousal levels and its impact on you confidence / performance
Teams dealing with the arousal better get the best results
Example: last 5 minutes ‘we are really close now – don’t lose it’ or ‘We’ve got this now, only a minute to go’
how can a coach imrove SE (general)
Control arousal: relaxation / stress management
Accurate demonstration: by a role model of equal ability
Point out past successful performances
Support and encourage
Allow success during training
Set attainable goals
Attribute success to the athlete
One to one coaching with the coach
Mental practice
explain how the self efficacy of a performer may be improved
performance accomplishments/success from previous performances/reminding performer of previous success.
avoid failure this can hinder self efficacy. organise successful events/gradually increase task difficulty/make task easier (practice is too vague)
vicarious experiences/watching successful performances, more effective if performers are of similar ability, verbal persuasion/encouragement/+feedback/reinforcement from coach (rewards too vague)
emotional arousal/stress management techniques/mental rehearsal/establish set routines, set goals/targets/performance goals rather than outcome, avoid social comparison, use attributions correctly/attribution retraining/encouraging self-serving bias
how can coach improve performance accomplishments aspect of SE
Set realistic goals
Set goals on performance not outcome
Point out past successful performance
how can a coach improve vicarious experience aspect of SE
Show role attainable role models
how can a coach improve verbal persuasion aspect of SE
Coach one-to-one
Use rewards
Give reinforcement and praise
Attribute success internally
Avoid social comparison
how can a coach improve emotional arousal aspect of SE
Use mental practice, visualisation or imagery
benefits of SE
Increased positive attitudes
Increased motivation
Reduced fear of failure
Reduces anxiety
Helps reach optimum level
what are the negative effects on the away team
Increased anxiety – hostile chanting
Increased fouls, social inhibition (The negative effect of the presence of others on performance)
what are the negative affects on the home team
Causing the team to ‘choke’ in big games
Increased pressure linking to catastrophe effect
Most effective when supporters are close to the pitch
what positive affect does the crowd have for the home team
improves confidence in home team
creates anxiety in the away team
balance between confidence and anxiety
Audience increases player motivation and confidence
No travel
Pitch / facility familiarity
The bigger the crowd the better the effect for the home team and more negative for the away team
Functional assertive behaviour:
Causing more drive
More assertion
Correct choice of response
Social facilitation: The positive effect of the presence of others on performance
What is the difference between self-confidence and self-efficacy?
Self confidence: general belief in ability, Self-efficacy: situational specific belief in ability
What is sporting trait confidence?
Consistent level of confidence shown in most situation, player is happy to play and has low anxiety. How a performer rates their ability to perform across a wide range of sports / in that sport
What is sporting state confidence?
State confidence: situation specific, temporary, varies depending on interaction influences. How performer rates their ability to perform at a particular moment.
how can a coach use attributions to maintain high levels of motivation following a defeat (3)
never attribute failure to internal-stable factors/ability
self serving bias
attribute loss to:
internal-unstable factors (effort)
external-stable (task difficulty)
external unstable (luck)
controllable factors
attribution retraining
Name some strategies to improve performance accomplishments
Set goals, make them more challenging when achieved, allow success, point out past success, set goals on performance not outcome
what is a leader inc egs
A leader is someone who influences you towards achieving your goals
Captain, coach, manager
Maintain effort by inspiring and motivating the team through goal setting
what are the 2 types of ways leaders can be appointed
prescribed and emergent
what is a prescribed leader inc eg
appointed from outside a group, providing new ideas and new direction (new manager)
what is an emergent leader inc eg
Appointed within the existing group
Team Captain
what are the qualities of a leader
communication
organisational skills
experience
Inspirational
Confidence
Charisma
Interpersonal skills
Empathy
what are the 3 styles of leadership
autocratic/task orientated
democratic/person orientated
laissez faire
what is the autocratic/task orientated style of leadership
Leader makes all the decisions and dictates all instructions
Task orientated: only concern getting results and reaching targets
Leader makes a game plan to win a game, tells the players the plan and makes them follow it. Coach has to continue to reiterate the plan throughout the game as players tend to move away from the plan
what is the democratic/person orientated style of leadership
More sympathetic approach, seeking opinions of group before making decisions.
interpersonal relationships
Decisions are made by group consultation
Coach speaking to senior players prior to a big game to with the aim of making a plan to win
With this the group continues with the plan when the leader is not present
which situation would a person orientated leadership style be most effective:
least
moderately
most favourable
moderately
what is the laissez faire style of leadership
Leader leaves the group to it. Coach may say I want you to improve your shooting and then leaves them to it, with the expectation that the senior players will run the session. Could result in social loafing
fiedlers contingency model of leadership says that leadership is determined by ….
the favourableness of the situation
according to fiedlers contingency model of leadership, when is autocratic/task orientated style least favourable
when the leader is weak
the group is hostile
the task is unclear
little respect for leader
low ability
low motivation
there is only some support
1 point off safety – players want to be told what to do
according to fiedlers contingency model of leadership when is autocratic/task orientated style most favourable
strong leader
group harmony
clear task
respect for the leader
high ability
high motivation
support
top of table, all going well leader can be autocratic as others will follow
according to fiedlers contingency model of leadership when is person orientated /democratic moderately favourable
some harmony
some motivation
some clarity
need for consulation
Mid-table, no chance of relegation, coach can use Democratic to get ideas from players to develop the team.
what did chelladurai’s multi-dimensional model of leadership look at … and found that
other factors influencing the choice of leadership style – not just the situation
Matching the leadership style to the group characteristics was most effective
what are the group characteristics that affect the leadership according to chelladurai’s multi-dimensional model of leadership
type of task
Individual / team game
Simple / complex skill
Time available
Size of the group
Danger present
Make up of the group
Females = more empathy and consultation
Males = more authoritarian
Ability = able flexible, novice ridged
Age
what are the leader’s characteristics that affect the leadership according to chelladurai’s multi-dimensional model of leadership
Age, experience, track record, relationship / respect from the group, quality, reputation
what are the 3 influences on leader behaviour that the leader can choose about how to lead (chelladurai) and explain
Required Behaviour: what the situation demands
Preferred behaviour: What the group wants
Actual Behaviour: What the leader decides to do in relation to the leadership style.
Importantly leading to – ‘satisfaction’ levels (high = things will go well)
give situational examples of when a democratic leadership would be needed
if lots of time is available
Safe environment
Individual sport
give leader example of when a democratic leadership would be needed
a leader with the characteristics of empathy
give group examples of when a democratic leadership would be needed
Older
Females
give situational examples of when a autocratic leadership would be needed
if no time is available
in a dangerous situation
in team training
give leader example of when a autocratic leadership would be needed
experienced leaders
give group examples of when a autocratic leadership would be needed
Large groups
Males
Beginners
In a situation where the group is experienced, has respect for the leader and is clear in its goals, what style of leadership would you use?
Autocratic: no need to consult in this situation, Experienced group Laissez-faire could be used
Name some features of the group that could affect the style of leadership used.
Group size, age, gender, experience, ability
using chelladurais and fiedlers leadership models, explain how a leader can ensure a group work together to achieve success (15)
chelladurais AO1, AO2 and AO3
AO1: factors
depends on situational characteristics, leaders characteristics, group/member characteristics and the favourableness of the situation
AO2: examples
situation eg group size, difficulty, time, nature of task.
leadership eg experience, personality.
members eg motivation, age, ability
actual behaviour- behaviour of the leader.
preferred behaviour- behaviour the group prefer from the leader.
required behaviour- based on the needs of the situation
AO3:
if the required B and the actual B match the preferred B the group will work together / accept applied example.
this is based on the idea of satisfaction with whats happening leading to BETTER performance.
using chelladurais and fiedlers leadership models, explain how a leader can ensure a group work together to achieve success (15)
fiedlers AO1, AO2, AO3
AO1:
depends on the favourableness of the situation.
AO2:
favourableness depends on: task, leaders relationship with the group, ability of the group, leaders position of authority
leadership style = task orientated approach/task centred/autocratic or person orientated approach/relationship centred/democratic
AO3:
use task orientated in most/least favourable situation.
eg dangerous situation with novices
use person orientated in moderately favourable situation eg new members joining a team for preseason training.
what is stress
a negative response of the individual to a threat:
Apprehension
Anxiety
Cognitive and Somatic
what is eustress
A positive response of the body to a threat
what is stress caused by and give examples
stressors
eg
Injury
Important game
Really good opponents
Pressure of being watched
what is a stressor for a 3000m race
look at the opponents, think they are too good and so anxiety and stress rises
an example of eustress for a 3000m race
believe trained hard and will do well
give 3 egs of a stressor
Fear of failure, injury, increased competition – the big game, strong opposition
what is cognitive stress inc eg
Negative thoughts
Irrational thinking
Loss of concentration
Attentional narrowing: arousal and anxiety levels increase and they cannot take in additional information
eg Worry about failing and letting coach down
what is somatic stress inc eg
Physiological and involves a physical response
Increased heart rate
Increase in sweating
Nausea
Sickness
Muscle tension (high pressure, isolated situation)
eg Free throw in basketball: tension leads to a poor shot
what are cognitive stress management techniques
thought stopping
visualisation
attentional control and cue utilisation
positive self talk
imagery
mental rehearsal
psychological skills training
what is thought stopping inc eg
Use of a trigger to remove negative thoughts
eg having a hairband on wrist and pulling it back to hit wrist
Batsman having a concentration cue
what is positive self talk inc eg
Replacing negative thoughts with positive ones
Struggling squash player may think ‘I can get to the ball if I just move a little sooner and get on my toes’
what is imagery inc eg
Have a successful image of a successful last performance. Recall it when needed
eg Golfer struggling – picks correct technique image from LTM and compares it realising a problem with his grip
what is visualisation inc eg
Visualisation: Going through what is expected prior to the performance / during the performance from previous excellent performances.
eg A footballer visualising a free kick going in the top corner
Internal (kinesthesis), External (environmental)
what is mental rehearsal inc eg
Mental rehearsal: Going through the process or the task in there mind before the action takes place
eg Racing driver: mentally rehearsing the track prior to racing
what is Attentional control and cue utilisation inc eg
The ability to process information is directly linked to the level of arousal
Stress causes performers to lose concentration and focus on incorrect stimuli (attentional narrowing). Reducing the processing capacity of the performer (increased arousal leading to less focused attention)
At high levels of arousal only limited information can be processed and important information be missed – a problem known as attentional wastage (meaning important information has been ignored – reducing performance)
what is psychological skills training
Training and using the cog stress techniques to reduce stress levels
what are the types/styles of attention in sport
broad
narrow
internal
external
what is broad attention
ability to pick up many cues from the environment
what is narrow attention
increased arousal means your ability to process cues is reduced
what is internal attention
mental/cognitive analysis
what is external attention
from senses from the environment
what is broad external attention inc eg
Picking up a wide range of cues from environment, e.g. the position of players in a game
what is broad internal attention inc eg
Mental analysis of numerous cues, e.g. analyse game and plan tactics
what is narrow external attention inc eg
Focus is directed to one environmental cue, e.g. golfer concentrating on putting into hole
what is narrow internal attention inc eg
Mental practice of one or two important cues, e.g. concentrate on weakness
how can an experienced player utilise the styles of attention and link to a footballer
they can switch between the appropriate styles and therefore make correct choices
midfielder
broad external- select player in best position to receive pass.
narrow external to focus on making accurate pass to players feet
what is attentional wastage
the missing of important cues (quality of selective attention)
what impact does high arousal have on attention
narrow attention field, info missed > wasted
what impact does moderate arousal have on attention
Relevant information received
what impact does low arousal have on attention
Broad attention field, lots of information received, confusion
what are the somatic stress management techniques
biofeedback
progressive muscle relaxation
centring
goal setting
what is biofeedback
Measuring athlete response when under pressure, heart rate checks, galvanic skin response (sweating measure).
Aim to help athlete recognise when symptoms are happening to eventually be able top recognise without technology
what is progressive muscle relaxation
Performer follows recorded instructions where they tense and relax their muscles. Aim to show how to control muscle tension issues
what is centring
Breathing control where performer relaxes and has slow controlled breaths. Focusing on this rather than the perceived issue
Name two different responses to a stressor
Negative or stress, positive or eustress
What is the difference between attentional narrowing and attentional wastage
Narrowing is when the ability to process cues is reduced with increased arousal. Wastage is when important cues are missed
what is attribution theory
a perception of the reason for an outcome of an event
what does weiners locus of causality say the reason for winning can be and explain each
internal (within in the performers control) If you think you are playing well or applying effort (control over the result) = internal attribute
external (out of the performers control) If you think the result was down to poor refereeing or luck (no control over the event) = external attribute
what is weiners theory about
the 2 dimensions are known as the causality of the attributes and concern the amount of control the performer has over the outcome of the event
what does weiners stability dimension say the reasons for winning/losing can be
changeable in a short time (unstable)
or a stable attribute which is something that could change over a period of time but it is not likely to change in the short term
examples of a stable and unstable attributes
Not trying hard can be changed next game (unstable)
Opposition being a good team, unlikely to change (stable)
what is learned helplessness
Using internal stable reasons for losing
when players feel responsible for the positive outcome of a game, then motivation and confidence can be enhanced
When self-doubt or a lack of belief in ability begins to affect the player, then confidence is lowered
Confidence is badly affected by learned helplessness (a performer begins to doubt they can actually complete the task)
Can lead to people feeling they are no good at certain sports
Attributing success to internal and stable and receiving negative feedback and criticism from the coach
Occurring when blame of losing is placed on internal and stable reasons such as ability
Lacking confidence so feel failure is inevitable and success unlikely – having no belief in their ability, could lead to players giving up even when winning possible
what is self serving bias
Using external and/or unstable reasons for losing
When players win they like to think it is down to them = internal and stable (Mastery of orientation – increasing confidence and belief in repeating success)
Self-serving bias helps promote self-esteem
Losing is attributed to unstable and external reasons (unstable)
Why is using correct attributions so important in sport?
Correct attribution increases:
Task persistence
Motivation
Confidence
Name two external and unstable attributes
Luck
Referee decision
Name two internal and unstable attributes
Effort
Amount of practice
What could happen if internal stable reasons are given for failure?
learned helplessness
What is attribution retraining?
Changing internal (ability) and stable reasons for failure to external and unstable (luck)
changing perception and belief
helps overcome learned helplessness
promotes self esteem
What is mastery orientation?
Giving internal and stable reasons for success
Showing confidence
Thinking success can be repeated
how could a coach improve the approach behaviour of players in their charge (4)
interaction of situation and personality.
situation is the incentive value, measured against the degree of difficulty.
past experience of task.
personality (naf or nach)
confidence
explain the influences that might determine a players level of achievement motivation (4)
setting achievable goals,
allowing success.
improving self efficacy
attributing success internally
reinforcement
