Exam 3 Lec Notes Contd. 2 Flashcards
lungs take up vast majority of volume of …
hilum is where everything goes in and out of lungs
thoracic cavity
actual surface of lungs is the … surface
costal
apex of each lung sits right below the …
mediastinal surface is where the … is
collarbone;
hilum
left lung has fewer divisions of the … that leads into lungs
conducting system
pumping on average … L of blood/min (basically entire blood content in volume)
if pressure was kept high in pulmonary circulation, this would … tissue in lungs fairly easily –> tissue in lungs is hollow and thin
high amount of pressure would lead to … and lungs then begin to …
5;
damage;
hemorrhaging;
fill up with blood
bronchial arteries are branching off of the …
necessary for all of the tissue except the … bc they are thin enough to get all of the oxygen they need without this
arteries;
alveoli
fluid from pleural cavity makes sure that lungs remain as … as possible
… is a condition where this lubrication is faulty, so breathing becomes extremely difficult
lungs don’t slide past wall of chest and even past themselves and they start to be replaced by … and getting damaged
elastic;
cystic fibrosis;
scar tissue
respiratory system = … system
pulmonary
when intrapulmonary pressure equalizes with Patm, this is the point in breathing when you can’t …
trying to inhale as much as possible, eventually it “stops” because of this
get any more air into lungs
intrapleural always has to be less than Patm and Ppul because otherwise lungs won’t …. the lungs are not physically attached to the thoracic cavity, they’re kept inflated bc Pip is always smaller than Patm and Ppul.
Patm is included here, because Ppul can equal Patm, but for regular shallow breathing, only considered….
stick to inside of the chest;
Ppul
negative Pip generated bc:
lung tissue is “sticky” doesn’t want to stay inflated primarily due to inside of the alveoli themselves there’s fluid, which is actively trying to…–> pulling on alveoli
that alveolar fluid is necessary because… is much more efficient when things are wet. the problem with this is that water has …, which tends to pull water molecules together, putting stress on alveoli
what works to expand lungs is that, they’re enclosed in a double walled sac and through … they’re stuck to the inside of the thoracic cavity
reduce alveolar size;
diffusion;
surface tension;
adhesion of fluid
… is just the difference between pressure in lungs and pressure in pleura
if kept in correct numbers, always keeps the lungs open
transpulmonary pressure
transpulm. pressure only needs to be around … mm Hg, don’t need that much of a difference
1
atelectasis (lung collapse) can happen through … and plugging a …, which can lead to a lobe/lung collapsing,
another way which is more common is if there’s a wound that admits air into pleural cavity– this is called a …
yet another way: physically tearing lung off of inner walls of thorax by … (lifting a lot of weight very … - … expanding faster than … can)
inhaling a foreign object; major bronchiole;
pneumothorax;
improper lifting (lifting a lot of weight very quickly – chest expanding faster than lungs can)
can reinflate a collapsed lung using a … – large hollow needle jabbed into patient’s side to let out excess air
when pulling chest tube out, a lot of times muscle will bounce back and prevent lung from recollapsing
chest tube
endocrine system includes number of different tissues and works alongside … system; affects …
nervous; metabolism
hormones don’t influence things as quickly as NS, but because they are long lasting in the …, they have much longer effect than other types of cell-cell communication
bloodstream
… signals only travel a short distance – cells that secrete these are acting to … neighboring cells about what happens to be going on at the one given time
paracrine;
inform;
because of the … of autocrine and paracrines, they are not considered to be part of the endocrine system
short distances
steroids as a chemical category are molecules that are composed of various organizations of groups arranged on a … scaffold
cholesterol
hormones can bind directly to …
transcription factors
…: stimulate mitosis
mitogens
all of the of the amino acid based hormones are soluble, except for .. hormone
thyroid
because amino acid based hormones are water soluble, they can’t cross the plasma membrane; thus, they have to bind to … in order to signal to the interior of these cells
transmembrane receptors
lipid soluble hormones bind to receptors that are either in the … or directly in the …
usually bind to … and activate genes
cytosol; nucleus;
transcription factors
hormone is … in cAMP signaling mechanism;
receptor coupled to …
first messenger;
G protein
… is relatively abundant enzyme in cytosol which degrades cAMP
phosphodiesterase
if you want to keep a second messenger cascade going you need a ligand constantly … to keep cAMP level, otherwise cAMP gets … rapidly and signal is transient
binding;
degraded
G protein when activated will diffuse along … of membrane and binds to … to activate it and cause conversion of ATP to cAMP
inner leaflet;
adenylate cyclase
a lot of amino acid based hormones use the … signaling mechanism:
PIP2 = …
DAG = …
IP3 = …
PIP2-CA2+;
phosphatidyl inositol bisphosphate;
diacylglycerol;
inositol trisphosphate
steroid hormone rapidly diffuses across plasma membrane, binds to receptor in cytosol, and receptor hormone complex is recognized by …. (series of proteins), which imports receptor-hormone complex, such that it enters the nucleus:
receptor-hormone complex binds to DNA and begins … DNA looking for transcriptional elements to affect transcription of downstream genes
nuclear pore complex;
scanning
if one has high levels of testosterone, but low levels of receptors, the effects are essentially the same as if there is …
very little testosterone
… is breakdown product of testosterone–> if there aren’t enough receptors for testosterone, it is broken down into this
if there’s high affinity for this product it leads to …
dihydrotestosterone;
male pattern baldness
upregulation is attempt to compensate for … in bloodstream
low levels of hormone
cells have intrinsic mechanisms for determining how … hormone receptors should be –> being … if there is excessive activation
active; downregulating
steroids and thyroid hormone, because they are lipid soluble, are bound to … in the blood such that they can be moved efficiently throughout the entire body
carrier proteins
can test for hormones based on expression levels in …
urine
if compromised … function, some hormones can stick around too long
liver
humoral stimuli:
example: calcium concs in blood –> bc calcium is essential, want to have a lot in blood
when sweating/urinating a lot, calcium is being excreted and you need to keep Ca2+ levels high –> hormone directly involved in increasing blood calcium is …:
secreted in order to stimulate release of calcium in bone
major stores of calcium in body is in …
adults arent’ as good at absorbing calcium from … as children are
parathyroid hormone;
skeletal system;
diet
quantity of parathyroid glands is variable –> most people have …
cells in parathyroid glands monitor blood calcium levels
adrenal medulla releases … (norepi and epi)
4;
catecholamines
hypothalamic hormones directly affect cells in pituitary glands and stimulates hormone release, the latter of which especially in relation to …
anterior pituitary
feedback loop with hypothalamus in which final targets of hormone respond go back to brain and bind to hypothalamus to …
inhibit further secretion
posterior pituitary + infundibulum –> …
neurohypophysis
anterior pituitary is actual … tissue
glandular
…: group of axons
tract
posterior lobe: collection of axons that extend from hypothalamus
two regions where these axons are coming from in hypothalamus
nuclei of hypothalamus produce … and … and travel down tract to posterior pituitary
oxytocin; ADH
posterior lobe;
… + … in hypothalamus–> these two groups of cell bodies have their axons projecting downward into hypophyseal tract
paraventricular nucleus; supraoptic nucleus
posterior lobe:
…: connecting tissue between two little pouches of pituitary and brain itself
infundibulum
posterior lobe:
when neurons fire, they … these hormones and hormones diffuse directly into a group of capillaries to release … and … that diffuses into capillary bed network and gets transported into the body
exocytose;
oxytocin; ADH
(anterior lobe) actual glandular tissue- outgrowth of. mucosa
extensive system of … - … system
capillaries; hypophyseal portal
(anterior lobe) hypothalamic neurons projecting down from hypothalamus and release … hormones directly into initial capillary bed network (…).
the primary capillary plexus drains into …, where they then branch again to form …
stimulating;
primary capillary plexus;
hypophyseal portal veins;
secondary capillary plexus
(anterior lobe) secondary capillary plexus provides cells in anterior pituitary with hormones being produced by the hypothalamus, which either … or … release of hormones from the actual glandular tissue in anterior pituitary
stimulate; inhibit
(anterior pituitary hormones) growth hormone: the one ant. pit. hormone that doesn’t activate … through …
second messenger cascade; cAMP
(anterior pituitary hormones) growth hormone:
responsible for stimulating most cells in the body but is particularly good at targeting bone and skeletal muscle, increase manufacture of …, and encourages breakdown of … to produce glucose
proteins;
fat
(anterior pituitary hormones) growth hormone:
doesn’t perform on its own –> doesn’t do anything directly at all
stimulates production of another hormone that actually does these things –> … which does all of the protein synthesis/fat burning/etc
insulin-like growth factor (IGF)
(anterior pituitary hormones) growth hormone:
can signal to hypothalamus to either stimulate Gh release by releasing … or inhibit by releasing …
makes more …, more … –> increases … and … of that organism
GHRH;
somatostatin;
muscle; bone;
strength; size
(anterior pituitary hormones) growth hormone:
hyposecretion in adults in adults is not very impactful, but you will heal more …
slowly
(anterior pituitary hormones) thyrotropin-releasing hormone binds to … which synthesize TSH to lead to … release
thyrotrophs; thyroxin
(anterior pituitary hormones) CRH-corticotropin-releasing hormones is released according to a …
highest levels in the …
as glucocorticoids are built throughout the day, CRH levels …
circadian rhythm;
morning;
dip
(anterior pituitary hormones) FSH and LH are gonadotropic:
FSH either causes follicle to mature and release an … or in males will control production of …
LH promotes production of various sex hormones –> maintains normal sexual function and controls all of the …
not found in prepubescent individuals
ovum;
sperm cells;
various sex hormones
(anterior pituitary hormones) FSH in women, takes arrested ovum and returns it to … so that it can fully mature
cell cycle
(anterior pituitary hormones) prolactin is produced in large quantities only after …
primarily controlled by … - will inhibit release of prolactin the right cell type
after childbirth, baby is typically given to mom to … to promote prolactin release
childbirth;
dopamine;
suckle
