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Mammalian Physiology > Exam 1 Info - Lecture Notes > Flashcards

Exam 1 Info - Lecture Notes Flashcards

1
Q

with a single ventricle, there isn’t a good separation of … vs … blood

A

oxygenated; deoxygenated

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2
Q

anatomy of heart alters according to …

A

metabolic demands

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3
Q

four chambered hearts evolved independent in … and …

physiology … –> maintaining constant temp

A

birds; mammals; homoiotherms;

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4
Q

…: form and function are intrinsically related to one another
e.g. teeth

A

principle of complementarity

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5
Q

… found withino rgans

A

smooth muscle

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6
Q

(maintenance of life)
maintain boundaries –> isolating internal enviro
…: many of the gradients used (concentration gradients which establish electrical signaling and ion transport, etc) necessitates these boundaries

A

signaling interface

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7
Q

(maintenance of life) movement –> both internal and external
dictated by … system which moves body parts in coordination with … system
additional muscles include … and … which move liquids around internally (e.g. blood, food being digested, etc)

A

muscular; skeletal;
cardiac;
smooth;

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8
Q

(maintenance of life) movement:

…: cellular movement –> performed by …; motility comparable to how single celled organisms move

A

contractility;

cilia

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9
Q

(maintenance of life) responsiveness –> interacting with enviro
sense and respond to stimuli
nervous system integrates … input and stimulates a response (e.g. reflex)
… responses –> monitoring and adjusting internal states

A

environmental; endocrine

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10
Q

(maintenance of life) …: breaking down food and absorbing nutrients

metabolism –> breakdown of nutrients to obtain … and …; catabolism + anabolism; fueled by …

A

digestion;

energy; structural ability; oxygenation

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11
Q

(maintenance of life) excretion:
removal of waste
…: unused nitrogen accumulated from protein breakdown
…: from respiration
…: from digestive system -unabsorbed food

A

urea;
CO2;
feces

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12
Q

(maintenance of life) reproduction:
…: level of reproduction is dependent on system
organismal level of repro

A

cellular division

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13
Q

…: organs working together to perform some physiological task

A

organ systems

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14
Q

(organ systems) integumentary: synthesizes …, houses cutaneous receptors and sweat and oil glands
acts as a significant … organ
important for physiological functions such as .., …, and …

A

vitamin D:
sensory;
gas exchange; water regulation; temp regulation

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15
Q

(organ systems) skeletal:
protection and support, provides framework for muscles to cause movement
… homeostasis

A

calcium

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16
Q

(organ systems) muscular:

manipulation of …, …, …, …, … (e.g. shivering)

A 
environment; 
posture; 
locomotion; 
facial expression; 
heat production
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17
Q

(organ systems) nervous: activates appropriate muscles and glands according to … signals and …

A

environmental; internal states

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18
Q

(organ systems) endocrine:
… control
cardiovascular:
blood transport which enables transport of …, …, …, etc

A

hormonal;

gas; nutrients; waste

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19
Q

(organ systems) lymphatic system/immune:

picks up fluid leaking from blood vessels and returns it to blood, houses … –> responds to .. present in body

A

white blood cells;

foreign substances

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20
Q

(organ systems) respiratory:
supplies blood with adequate … and removes …
gas exchange occurs within air sacs in lungs –>…

A

oxygen; CO2;

alveoli

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21
Q

(organ systems) digestive: breaks down food into absorbable units
urinary: primary function is to remove …
regulates …/.. as well as … and … regulation
reproductive: offspring production

A

nitrogen;

water retention; excretion; electrolyte; pH

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22
Q

fundamental operational principle of physiology is … –> several factors for survival that necessitate a balance
nutrients, oxygen, water, normal body temps for homeothermic animals (bodily functions optimized for a certain temp - for people around … degrees C), appropriate atmospheric pressure
low pressures –> will begin bleeding from lungs due to …

A

homeostasis; 37; tissue compression

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23
Q

…: chemicals for energy and cell building

carbs, proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins

A

nutrients

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24
Q

oxygen: necessary to “…” foods with - … release from foods

A

burn; Energy

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25
Q

…: provides the environment necessary for chem rxns

A

water

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26
Q

normal body temp impacts rates of chemical rxns:

… –> level of change of biochemical processes if temp changes by ten degrees

A

Q 10

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27
Q

appropriate atmospheric pressure: adequate … and …

A

breathing; gas exchange

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28
Q

homeostasis occurs through control systems:
first need a sensor which communicates with a … (entity that compares baseline to present state- difference between two values is …)
dynamic equilbrium achieved via a … –> effector moves factor in opposite direction that stimulus has done
… process
nervous and endocrine systems play primary roles

A

controller; error signal; negative feedback loop; continuous;

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29
Q

homeostatic control of variables necessitates a receptor control sensor and effector:
.. is the sensor
… which determines set point
effector

A

receptor;

control center

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30
Q

cell can signal to itself that has occurred via changes in

A

electrical potentials

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31
Q

long-distance communication and action potentials or a way that a cell can signal to itself is initiation of a … that occurs when ovum is fertilized by sperm:
… are the primary means of signaling

A

calcium wave; chemical signals

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32
Q

chemical signals can be generated for the same cell or for others:
signals are manufactured and stored in … which exit via exocytosis
substantial for chemical signals to only be recognized by cells that you need to receive that signal

A

vesicles

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33
Q

one of the most basic methods of intercellular communication – … between those cells

A

physical connection

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34
Q

gap junctions: specialized type of protein (…):
thousands of these where the two cells meet
creates one continuous … between the cells
chemical signals will travel to other cell as fast as diffusion will allow –> essentially …
coordinated … occurs due to gap junctions

A

connexins;
cytoplasm;
instantaneous; beating of heart

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35
Q

contact-dependent signaling:
a protein on one cell that fits with a protein on the other cell –> these are … (…)
CAMs signal that the two cells … with one another

A

CAMs; cell adhesion molecules;

made contact

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36
Q

contact-dependent signaling: …. cells have contact dependent signals –> keeps them anchored to one another
substantial for maintaining tissues in the location where those tissues are supposed to be –> when they’re found somewhere else, they will die via …

A

skin; programmed cell death

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37
Q

…: chemical agent produced and exits via exocytosis, which then binds on a receptor on that one cell’s surface receptor
…: signaling to the local enviro –> just in the immediate neighborhood (e.g. infections and … - interfere with viable replication)

A

autocrine; paracrine; interferons

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38
Q

long-distance signaling: … (hormonal)
long distance intercellular communication can occur through … –> electrical signal will travel down length of neuronal axon
neurons don’t communicate with one another via … signals

A

endocrine; neurons; electrical

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39
Q 
long-distance communication: 
no electrical signals travel between cells, the action potential merely stimulates the release of ... 
... --> special class of neurotransmitter that acts as hormone
A

neurotransmitters;

neurohormones

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40
Q

chemicals that bind to receptors = ligand
X ligand is … for Y receptor –> means that this is a specific relationship, wherein the ligand only binds to one receptor

A

cognate

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41
Q

cytokines:
produced by any cell that has a … –> means that RBC’s can’t signal that something’s occurring

stress and inflammation change cytokine expression - … cytokines are activated in these situations

A

nucleus;

pro-inflammatory

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42
Q

for water-soluble only ligands, they are … and must have … which generate a signaling cascade

A

lipophobic; surface receptors

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43
Q

lipophilic signal molecules –> inaccurate, if they were simply lipophilic they would never be able to go anywhere
should say …/…
because these can diffuse across membrane they don’t need ..,. instead have receptors in … or … - these receptors don’t activate a signaling cascade

A

amphiphilic; amphipathic;

surface receptors; cytosol; nucleus;

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44
Q

lipophilic signal molecules:
… can occur when ligand binds to receptors
these receptors tend to be …
lipophilic ligands are “…” – quickly activate …: they bind to one receptor and immediately go to nucleus and start making mRNA

A

dimerization;
transcription factors;
fast track to the nucleus;
transcription

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45
Q

lipophilic signal molecules:
tend to be ligands like …
direct …

A

hormones; transcriptional activation

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46
Q

all androgens are … based – these rapidly diffuse into cells (tend to be …)

A

cholesterol; lipophilic

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47
Q

the receptors for water-soluble ligands tend to cross the entire … –> they are activated via … that occur upon binding

A

cell membrane; conformational shifts

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48
Q

ways to initiate signaling in water-soluble ligands:
ligand activates receptor which then activates amplifying enzymes which stimulates release of thousands of signaling molecules – …
common families of amplifying enzymes: .., ..,. …

A

signaling cascade;

adenylyl cyclase; guanylyl cyclase; phospholipase C

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49
Q

ways to initiate signaling in water-soluble ligands:
second messengers activated by amplifying enzymes activate … - stick a phosphate group onto something else because phosphates are negatively charged, which will stimulate conformational change on the molecule that it was added so that can either …/… that molecule
same kinase can activate a lot of molecules and deactivate a lot of molecules

A

protein kinases; activate; inactivate;

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50
Q

ways to initiate signaling in water-soluble ligands:
sometimes second messenger cascades stimulate … – proteins that are calcium sensitive will instantly bind to … and undergo conformational change

A

calcium release; free calcium

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51
Q

for a signaling cascade, if there’s a series of enzymes, those enzymes will be stuck to the … in that … such that activation will occur efficiently

A

cytoskeleton; specific order

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52
Q

g-protein coupled receptor signaling:
G-proteins are proteins that bind to …
there are … and … G proteins
…. for the G-protein receptors

A

GTP;
monomeric; trimeric;
7-transmembrane domains

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53
Q

g-protein coupled receptor signaling:
… 7-transmembrane G-protein coupled receptors
when G-proteins is activated, one part of the G protein “splits off” of the rest of the protein and will then bind to. … – the amplifying enzyme in this cascade
adenylyl cyclase activates … (converts … to …) which will then bind to and activate …

A

serpentine;
adenylyl cascade;
cAMP: ATP; cAMP;
protein kinase A

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54
Q

g-protein coupled receptor signaling:
protein kinase A phosphorylates other proteins to continue propagating the signal and lead to the adequate response
adenylyl cyclase will remain activated for a long time due to the fact that cAMP is … in the cytosol (this is bc it’s very effective at activating kinases and so cell does not want cAMP to remain activated if its unnecessary)

A

degraded rapidly;

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55
Q

phospholipase C system is also activated by GPCRs:
… works on phospholipids
in general …. cleave lipids
PL-C is what is activated by the G protein instead of adenylyl cyclase

A

phospholipsae;

lipases

56
Q

phospholipase C system is also activated by GPCRs:
PL-C embedded in … of plasma membrane –> no lipids will be in cytoplasm
PL-C cleaves the lipid into … and … –> diacylglycerol has … and thus remains in the plasma membrane; Bc IP3 has three phosphae groups it …

A

inner leaflet;
inositol triphosphate; diacylglycerol;
two fatty acid chains; diffuses into cytoplasm

57
Q

DAG activates … which again phosphorylates other molecules to yield a cellular response
IP3 will bind to proteins on the ER and initiate .., which also propagates the signal

A

protein kinase C;

calcium release;

58
Q

GPCRs an be adjacent to ion channels in the membrane which have … interior, and … ball that can open or close it. this is held to the transmembrane domain by a chain of …

A

hollow; globular; amino acids

59
Q

GPCRs:
ion channels have a specific … that only allow specific ions to travel through them
changes in … will then allow for ion movement
… receptor acts in this way – neurotransmitter found in muscle
… of the cell will change according to ion movement

A

diameter;
membrane permeability;
acetylcholine;
voltage

60
Q

calcium is substantial in … –> binds to proteins that regulate the state of muscle contraction –> one of these proteins is …, which allows the muscle to contract - essentially alters to the … of muscle

A

muscle contraction;

troponin; length

61
Q

proteins that control exocytosis are in … family of proteins- these are calcium-sensitive proteins
“squish” neurotransmitter in … into plasma membrane

A

SNARE; vesicle

62
Q

… is substantial in calcium signaling

A

calmodulin

63
Q

… is activated by nitric oxide. G cyclase does the same thing as …, but activates … instead

A

guanylyl cyclase;

A cyclase; cGMP

64
Q

nitric oxide acts as a … in brain
also substantial in endothelial cells - NO causes ..
… in endothelial cells - nitrogen group from arginine is cleaved off which forms NO and citrulline –> increases … to muscles under stress

A

neurotransmitter;
vasodilation;
nitric oxide synthase; blood flow

65
Q

carbon monoxide is potent signaling molecule:
in low concs.
potent ..

A

vasodilator

66
Q

phospholipase A2 is present in skin and is responsible for … cleavage –> activates … and …

A

arachidonic acid; COX 1 and 2

67
Q

phospholipase A2:
activates proteins that are … and thus cause pain by … on neurons
NSAIDs counter this - relieve pain by reducing …
“real” pain killers are … because it travels to the brain and acts there

A

vasoconstrictors; pinching;
swelling;
opioids

68
Q

… is the ligand that is supposed to be there

A

agonist

69
Q

antagonist blocks the receptor’s activity - blocks receptor’s …

A

active site

70
Q

… is what causes the specific action not the ligand
e.g. epinephrine can bind to … adrenergic receptor and can cause constriction of vessel, whereas with … adrenergic receptor, the vessel will dilate
asthma inhalers work this way by having chemicals that bind specifically to …. receptor

A

receptor;

alpha; beta; beta 2 adrenergic receptor

71
Q

… increases amount of receptors in an attempt to maintain homeostatic level of signaling. … can also occur

A

upregulation; downregulation

72
Q

downregulation occurs when there is a constant signal that isn’t supposed to be a constant signal –> intended to … neurons towards … - this is why drug tolerance occurs
for opiates, downregulation and upregulation occurs extremely quickly- thus, … usually occurs after individual goes clean for a short amount of time and then take the same amount they used to take before going clean

A

desensitize; constant signaling; overdosing;

73
Q

… is protein that allows for endocytosis

A

clathrin

74
Q

nervous system: organ system designed to think
get information in form of … info
must decide what to do with that sensory info –> some kind of … system is necessary
if sensory system warrants a response, a … system is necessary

A

sensory;
integration;
motor;

75
Q

two major categories for nervous system: … and …

peripheral carries info to …

A

central; peripheral; CNS

76
Q

PNS: afferent + efferent neurons;
…: give info about state of organs they innervate (e.g. skin, skeletal muscles, joints)
…: sense neurons in gut- convey impulses from digestive system
.. neurons carry info to initate response

A

somatic afferent fibers;
visceral afferent fibers;
motor

77
Q

PNS:
…/voluntary NS
…/involuntary NS –> … (digestive system), smooth and cardiac muscle, … glands; still control over some of these muscles to some degree - but very limited; autonomic is divided into … and …

A

somatic;

autonomic; viscera; endocrine; sympathetic; parasympathetic

78
Q

… included in CNS (technically part of brain

A

eyes

79
Q

parasympathetic “rules most of existence” - system designed to …, helps promote … functions during periods of rest
maintaining …
…, …, …, etc.
responsible for … and …

A 
conserve energy; 
house-keeping; 
homeostasis; 
vagal tone; breathing; heartbeat; 
rest; digest
80
Q

sympathetic: responses to important needs
mobilizes body when … is necessary
… or …
speeds up fibers that innervate … of heart

A

action;
fight or flight;
pacemakers

81
Q

sympathetic:
four Fs: …, …, …, …
strong sensory stimuli

A

fighting; fleeing; feeding; f*** (mating)

82
Q

neurons are not overwhelming majority of nervous tissue - most nervous tissue is composed of … cells instead (neuroglia-glial cells):
different glial cells for CNS and PNS –>… differences between tissues in CNS and PNS

A

supporting; functional

83
Q

(glial cells) astrocytes- CNS:
look like exploding cells –> highly branched
most abundant cell type in CNS
cling to … and help keep them alive
during development, as brain is forming, neurons migrate from … of brain to … by following astrocytes that function as … –> astrocytes act as path that neurons follow

A

neurons;

interior of brain; cortex; scaffolds;

84
Q

(glial cells) astrocytes:
control chemical enviro - sleep to give astrocytes time to mop up … (esp … ones, e.g. glutamate which is toxic in high levels)
astrocytes participate in … modulate neuronal firing and directly participate in info processing

A

excessive neurotransmitters; excitatory; info processing;

85
Q

(glial cells) astrocytes:
control what moves in and out of brain via …
astrocyte feet - wrap around blood vessels in brain and secrete chemicals to communicate with capillary cells to facilitate … –> capillaries make … with astrocyte such that not much material can leak out of the capillaries

A

capillaries;
cell-cell contact;
tight junctions;

86
Q

astrocyte feet:
… - astrocyte feet wrapping around capillaries (…, not astrocytes, are blood brain barrier; astrocytes are merely responsible for maintaining this)

areas in brain where capillaries are more … than others (e.g. hypothalamus) - sampling fluid leaking out of capillaries to see if there’s anything in blood that shouldn’t be there

A

blood-brain barrier; capillaries;

leaky;

87
Q

(glial cells) astrocytes:
blood brain barrier so tight that … cannot enter brain - typically white blood cells can secrete chemicals that break … but this doesn’t happen in blood-brain barrier

A

immune cells; cell-cell communication

88
Q

(glial cells) microglia:
brain, spinal cord and eyes are … - no immune cells
tiny cells that “mop up” when things go awry in CNS
… dead/dying neurons to prevent damage to neighboring neurons
because they’re smaller, they can move around more easily

A

immune privileged;

phagocytize;

89
Q

(glial cells) ependymal cells:
there are … spaces filled with … – ependymal cells line those areas, which are called …
only lining … of ventricles
… –> keep CSF flowing throughout ventricles

A

hollow; CSF;
ventricles;
surface;
ciliated

90
Q

(glial cells) oligodendrocytes:
cells responsible for insulating axons of neurons in the CNS –> most axons have insulation
these cells manufacture …, a type of fat, wraps around segments of different axons and coats them with myelin –> reduces amount of … as action potential travels down neuronal axons

A

myelin; leakage of current;

91
Q

(glial cells) oligodendrocytes:
without myelin, speed of signal transmission can be … slower than it is with myelin –> myelin speeds up computational process speeds
one oligodendrocyte myelinates multiple segments of … - differs from PNS

A

300x;

multiple axons;

92
Q

(glial cells) oligodendrocytes:
myelin in CNS is different than myelin in PNS –> in PNS cells that myelinate would … and help facilitate … of axon in a cut axon by acting like … –> this does not occur in CNS which is why strokes/ spinal cord damage is extremely devastating

A

remain in the same place; regeneration; guideposts;

93
Q

(glial cells) oligodendrocytes:
proteins on outside of CNS myelin that cause … to collapse –> these proteins are … compounds
e.g. “no go” protein
these aren’t present in cells of PNS

A

growth cones; inhibitory;

94
Q

(glial cells) satellite and schwann cells - PNS
…: wrap around neuronal cell bodies and sustain them
… - myelinating cells of PNS –> major diff between schwann and oligodendrocyte’s methods of myelinating: one schwann cell only myelinates … of a single axon
in between myelin segments, … - in CNS as well

A

satellite;

schwann; one single piece; nodes of Ranvier;

95
Q

neurons:
born with way more than are necessary
neurons that don’t undergo any connections undergo …
…: neuron can never divide to make two neurons

A

apoptosis;

terminally differentiated

96
Q

neurons:
high metabolic rate:
…% of calories consumed daily are dedicated exclusively to maintaining body temps
of the rest, ..% of those left over go to maintaining brain

A

70; 80

97
Q

neurons:
brain can only run on … –> about a day’s worth of glucose stored in …
very low electricity running through brain

A

glucose; liver

98
Q

cell body (perikaryon/soma) - where everything is manufactured in neuron; where … and … is located
extensive golgi to synthesize …
…
…: where action potentials are generated from
clusters of somas = … in CNS, … in PNS

A 
ER; golgi; 
neurotransmitters; 
neurofilaments; 
axon hillock; 
nuclei; ganglia
99
Q

processes of neurons: dendrites and axons
…: transmit sensory info into neurons
…: motor info away
bundles of processes: … in CNS, … in PNS

A

dendrites;
axons;
tracts; nerves

100
Q

dendrites:
receive info
in CNS, neurons synapsing on dendrites –> large array of dendrites surround neurons - …
…

A

dendritic arbor;

graded potential

101
Q 
axon: 
one axon comes from ... 
... - branch from neuron 
typically ... per neuron 
branches at end of axon which synapse onto something 
...: synapse onto muscle tissue
A

axon hillock;
axon collateral;
one axon;
neuromuscular junction;

102
Q

axon:
… docked on axon terminals
carry action potentials away from neuron
… - take bundles of “stuff” and by anterograde transport, transport these stuff to … –> different types of motor protein facilitate … transport - from axon terminal to cell body
if neurons relied just on … alone, it would take way too long

A

vesicles;

motor protein; neuronal terminals; retrograde transport; diffusion;

103
Q

myelin sheaths:
as schwann cells are wrapping around, nucleus forms peripheral bulge called …
schwann cells wrap neurons by starting on outside and wrapping towards inside - highly inefficient

A

neurilemma

104
Q

…/.. –> rare, but can be seen over short distances in PNS
no … in CNS

A

unmyelinated axons; semi-myelinated

neurilemma

105
Q

multipolar neurons: extensive .., one main axon that comes directly from axon hillock
most neurons are these

A

dendritic arbor

106
Q

unipolar neuron takes info and sends it to …
don’t have …
have … on one end that generate action potential

A

CNS;
axon hillock
sensory receptors

107
Q

…: bypass signal being sent to CNS and relay info directly back to a motor neuron
responsible for … - much faster rxn

A

interneurons

108
Q

neurons have ability to change internal states faster than any other cell type –…
o respond to changes in environment and send a signal as a response to wherever axons extend to –> action potential/nerve impulses

A

irritability

109
Q

neurons change their internal composition of charges from the… to …to generate these action potentials

A

outside of plasma membrane; inside of plasma membrane

110
Q

potential difference: … outside of cell versus inside of cell

A

number of charges

111
Q

current is not necessarily equivalent to the …
movement of … ions rushing into the cell - actually very low current
cells are very low voltage systems

A

potential;

sodium

112
Q

higher levels of resistance can correspond to higher levels of … - tend to be inefficient
resistor is … for neuron

A

heat;

plasma membrane

113
Q

insulators are … in neurons -no ion channels where this is present, but even if they were there, they’d be blocked by it

A

myelin

114
Q

conductor for neuron is the … – good conductors, only physical impediment of ions through them is how … they can actually move

A

ion channels; fast

115
Q

leakage channels are … regardless of neuron’s state

A

always open

116
Q

interior of the neuron is negative –> relative value, not absolute
more … outside of the neuron than inside - … in interior, which is why interior is deemed negative
deficit keeps voltage gated channels shut

A

positive charges; positive charge deficit

117
Q

when ligand gated channels open to allow Na+ inside the cell, … accumulate and stimulate the opening of the …, because the gate has “arms” that contain …
When the Na+ accumulates, … stimulates movement of the ion channel’s “arms” to open the gate

A

positive charges;

voltage-gated Na+ channels; positive charge; +-+ repulsion

118
Q

… or … activate voltage gated channels

A

ligand gated ion channels; mechanically gated channels

119
Q

sodium-potassium pump –> ensures that there is enough … that can leave and enough …. that can enter
… being pumped out and … being pumped in
once the K+ is pumped in, they immediately leak out

A

k+; Na+;

3 Na+; 2 K+

120
Q

if we only had K+ leak channels, the cell’s interior would be at … mV, but presence of Na+ leak channels balance this slightly and maintains potential at around -70 mV

A

-90

121
Q

graded potentials; moving only a couple ions into interior, resting membrane potential can reset very rapidly
use is to cause … – generally created on dendrites and on somas
most synapses are … (axon sitting on dendrite), but there’s also … and …

A

action potentials

axodendritic; axosomatic; axoaxonic

122
Q

when one neuron dumps neurotransmitters on dendrite of postsynaptic neuron, a … generally results

A

graded potential

123
Q

… of graded potential that decides whether or not an action potential is generated

A

summation

124
Q

hyperpolarization vs depolarization is difference between … and … neurotransmitters: excitatory sends … signal in dendrites of neurons – binds and open channels that move … charge in cell
inhibitory does the opposite: injects … into cell

A

excitatory; inhibitory; depolarization

positive; negative

125
Q

graded potentials are short lived because they are small and spread out in all directions, because they are located at a .. spot in a dendrite
current flows in … but once the channel is closed, no more positive charge will be injected into interior of cell – graded potential doesn’t sustain it bc it is a little pulse; current is not sustained and so it diffuses very quickly

A

random; all directions;

126
Q

action potential doesn’t decrease in … from one point to another in the axon, unlike the graded potentials
doesn’t dissipate

A

mangitude

127
Q

-55 mV is the threshold for an action potential –> must be reached for action potential to actually occur
accumulated enough … charges in interior of neurons such that na+ has accumulated in axon hillock to open the … –> results in rush of Na+ down its conc gradient, bringing membrane potential to …
voltage gated ion channels for Na+ close and K+ voltage gated ion channels open to allow for ..
… –> K+ voltage gated ion channels remain opening for slightly too long to cause hyperpolarization

A 
positive; 
voltage-gated ion channels; 
\+30 mV 
repolarization; 
undershoot
128
Q

at rest the gated Na+ and K+ channels are ..

A

closed

129
Q

change in voltage that results in action potential is related to the fact that gated sodium and potassium channels function in diff ways:
Na+ voltage gated channels are … channels –> as soon as threshold is hit, they fly open - … –> stay open for very short time. when they close, the voltage gated K+ channels open
K+ voltage gated ion channels respond to … as well, but there’s a pause -… channels

A

fast; instantaneous;

threshold voltage; slow

130
Q

Na+ voltage gated channels have two gates:
activated gates: … at rest, opens when threshold is hit
inactivation gate - … at rest, snaps shut at .. mV
the two gates open and close at diff times to ensure that fast opening and closing of Na+ gates doesn’t last too long
having the activation and inactivation gates takes less time than it would if the Na+ channel only had one gate

A

closed;

open; +30

131
Q

K+ channels only have one gate- part of the reason why they’re slow channels
activation gate takes a while to close which is what allows for … - stay open bc they don’t have …
contributes to … period

A

hyperpolarization; inactivation gate;

absolute refractory

132
Q

generating potential at axon hillock means that the action potential can travel in one direction - …

A

down the axon

133
Q

action potential continues from one node of Ranvier to another
faster a neuron fires = … stimulus

A

more intense

134
Q

for another action potential to be fired, … has to be restored
… must be reset –> time for this to occur is the …
if this wasn’t here neuron would be depolarized the entire time and nothing would happen, because there would be no recognition of … of stimulus, because the neurons would just remain depolarized and would keep firing based on the very first signal

A

resting membrane potential;
sodium channels; absolute refractory period;
absolute refractory period;
frequency;

135
Q

absolute refractory period:
about … from the time threshold is generated; incapable of firing another action potential during this time;
most K+ channels still open during this period –> … is still occurring, causing …, which ensures that if a train of signals is occurring they’re of sufficient energy to stimulate another action potential

A

1ms; repolarization; undershoot;

136
Q

conductance velocities:
signal doesn’t leak due to …, which means that action potentials occur extremely
quickly –> … + distribution of … only at … allows for these high conductance speeds

A

myelin; insulator; voltage gated channels; nodes

Mammalian Physiology (31 decks)

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