Anatomy Ch 4 Test Flashcards
chemical element that shuts down metabolism if present in the body.
arsenic
gradual poisoning from contact with pesticides or environmental pollutants
arsenicosis
how does arsenic damage the body:
binding to bonds between sulfur atoms in proteins
the effects on metabolism largely stem from _____________________________ that helps the breakdown products of glucose enter the _____________
impairment of an enzyme, mitochondria
in the mitochondria, energy is __________ and cells ___________
extracted, run out of energy
exome
the part of the genome that encodes protein
exome is ___ of a genome
1.5%
example of exome:
autism (diagnostic odyssey)
replicating DNA is an __________ process
error-prone
cells can ____ newly replicated DNA, __________, and __ some of them
scan, detect mutations, correct
when DNA repair fails, health suffers with _______ because cells cannot ________, causing ________
cancer, remove it, mutations
when DNA repair fails, health suffers with cancer because cells cannot remove it causing mutations
EFFECTS:
recessive mutation
dominant mutation
recessive mutation:
present in both copies of effected genes to cause symptoms
dominant mutation:
present in only one gene copy
DNA replication is the process of…
making copies of DNA
WHEN does DNA replication happen
S phase of the cell cycle
WHERE does DNA replication happen
nucleus
WHY does DNA replication happen
each new cell produced at the end of the cell cycle has their own complete set of DNA
DNA…
a large molecule in the nucleus of a cell that contains all the genetic information of an organism
DNA is a…
double helix that has to be straightened out because it cannot be copied in double helix
hydrogen bonds help keep ___________
DNA in double helix shape
double helix means…
double stranded or twisted up DNA
DNA is in _______ that each have a _______.
segments, gene
DNA has _________-_____________ genes
20,000-30,000; SPECIFICALLY 20,500
genes are responsible for making specific _________
proteins
each ______ has the information to make _____ its whole life only when it needs to.
gene, one specific thing
when a gene is on it shows a ________
trait
can be turned on and off, can get turned on and off to make a ________
specific protein
we can be carriers of diseases but not reflect that _______
trait
DNA has ________(_______________)
sugar (backbone of DNA)
all information on our body is…
DNA
DNA stands for…
deoxyribose nucleic acid
How long does DNA Replication take
60-90 mins
DNA is copied at ________ times
different
genome:
entire genetic code/DNA strand
DNA is composed of smaller unites called ______________
nucleotides
there are ____ nucleotide pairs in cells
3 billion
the nucleotides in DNA cells contain _____
1 phosphate group, 5 carbon sugar, 4 nitrogen bases
nitrogen bases (amino acids)
adenine
thymine
guanine
cytosine
before DNA can be replicated, it first must _________ from its __________
unzip, double helix shape
5 enzymes that function in the process of DNA replication
helicase
primase
DNA polymerase
exonuclease
DNA ligase
breaks Hydrogen bonds and unzips DNA double helix
helicase
DNA is split into__________
2 individual strands
DNA template
the original strands of DNA that you build the new strand off of
after helicase unzips DNA, the formation is called…
replication fork
enzyme that sequences short RNA called primers
primase
primase binds to…
primer
primer(_____): _____________
RNA - starting point
binds to primer and makes the DNA
DNA polymerase
Primase tells ______ where to start DNA replication
polymerase
exonuclease:
removes primers (RNA) from both strands of DNA
polymerase comes back after________
exonuclease
ligase:
gives up all new segments
ligase ________ the strands
seals up
DNA can only be copied from _________ directions
5’ to 3’
5’ to 3’ determines how each strand of DNA is ___________
replicated
when DNA is made from 5’ to 3’
leading strand
DNA is _________ with ______
one new strand, one old strand
DNA is one new strand with one old strand.
This is called…
semi-conservative
has to be done in segments because of its opposite directions (3’ to 5’)
lagging strand
Lagging strand has to be done in segments because of this opposite directions (3’ to 5’)
what are these segments called?
okazki fragments
replication of lagging strand in segments from 5’ to 3’ and on a 3’ to 5’ strand
okaski fragments
complementary strand
wherever there’s an A, T, and a G, C
complementary strand is when an _________ is being __________
old strand, made with new
RNA:
much smaller molecule and contains the information of a single gene
RNA is a __________ molecule
single stranded
RNA is composed of smaller units called…
nucleotides
the nucleotides in RNA contain the nitrogen bases…
adenine
uracil
guanine
cytosine
RNA comes in 3 forms, each with a different function…
mRNA
tRNA
rRNA
mRNA
messenger RNA
tRNA
transfer RNA
rRNA
ribosomal RNA
RNA stands for
ribonucleic acid
DNA is ________ and RNA is ________
double stranded, single stranded
the strands of DNA are composed of the sugar _____________ but in RNA the strands are composed of the sugar ________
deoxyribose, ribose
DNA contains…
RNA contains…
all genetic info
info from only one gene on the DNA
the process of synthesizing proteins from information in the genes on your DNA
protein synthesis
Protein synthesis takes _______ from ___ to make _______ to make _______.
info, DNA, mRNA, proteins
proteins are different________
lengths
protein synthesis is the process of…
creating proteins
another word for protein synthesis
gene expression
Proteins are really responsible for your _______
traits
_______ are really responsible for your traits
proteins
no protein made…
no trait
how many proteins are in the body
more than 10,000
2 stages of protein synthesis
transcription and translation
when a gene is turned on it…
produces a protein
when a gene is turned on it produces a protein
this is called…
being expressed
when a gene is expressed, we will make that _________ and display that _______
protein, trait
when a gene is copied, it shows a trait for that gene
gene expression
you only show a trait if…
the gene makes the protein it codes for
your genetic traits are because of _______
proteins being made by genes
making a mRNA strand from a gene on the DNA in the nucleus
transcription
synthesizing a protein from info on the mRNA at the ribosome with the help of tRNA and rRNA
translation
transcription happens in the…
nucleus
translation happens in the…
ribosomes in the cytoplasm
WHY does protein synthesis happen?
to make proteins: they get old, have to make new, have to grow to do reactions and fight diseases
WHEN does protein synthesis happen?
ALL THE TIME: interphase
in transcription, __________ is being made from a _________ on the DNA
mRNA, single gene
___________ breaks the H+ bonds between nucleotides to unzip the DNA
RNA polymerase
the RNA polymerase uncoils a _____ and only ______ is copied
little section, one side
Now, a new ________ is made by _______
mRNA strand, RNA polymerase
mRNA contains codes, which are…
instructions to assemble a specific protein
when mRNA is made, DNA…
winds back into double helix shape
Translation:
transfer of amino acids
translation: the mRNA _______ to _______
swam, ribosomes
the mRNA attach to a part made of _______
rRNA
mRNA leaves the ________ and binds to a ______ in the _______
nucleus, ribosome, cytoplams
mRNA builds a chain of _____ that make ________
amino acids, proteins
codon:
code for amino acid
first codon ____ is read by __________
AUG, tRNA’s, anticodon
tRNA is the molecule that…
carries amino acids
anticodon:
exact opposite of codons
anticodons fly in to attach to…
tRNA
tRNA is made from _________ and is naturally in the _________
original DNA strands, cytoplasm
the first codon drops off _____________ carried by ________
specific amino acid, tRNA
the amino acids are dropped off at the ___________
ribosomes
second codon is read ________ by another different _________ and another _________ is dropped off
AAC, tRNA, amino acid
after dropped off and attached to ribosome, the amino acid forms a ___________ to hold them together
peptide bond
concerning codons: 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, etc… are read until ______________
stop codon reached
each codon represents an _____________ except for _______
amino acid, stop codon
stop codons are special molecules that binds to ______ and tells molecules to _________
tRNA, detach from ribosomes
________ reads stop codons
no tRNA
stop codon is __ and translation of mRNA _________
read, stops
protein is______
finished being assembled
after the stop, the codon is _______________
chopped into original pieces
start codon
AUG
how many stop codons are there?
3
what are the 3 stop codons?
UAA, UGA, UAG
the smallest mRNA has ________ codons
50
normal mRNA have ________ codons
200-500
what is the range of the amount of codons that mRNA can have
50-2000
codon:
sequence of 3 nucleotides
gene is a code for _________
one protein
amino acids bonded together in long chains to form a protein
polypeptide chains
bonds formed between the amino acids holding them in proper sequence
peptide bond
____________ encompasses the many chemical reactions occurring within a cell
cellular metabolism
the many chemical reactions occurring with a cell store and release ________ used to carry out cellular functions
energy
TRUE OR FALSE: Enzymes are not consumed in their function to alter reactions
true
TRUE OR FALSE: glycolysis is an aerobic stage of cellular respiration
false, anaerobic
Enzymes have a ose suffix in their name
false, “ase”
within a cell thousands of chemical reactions take place to keep the cell in homeostasis
true
NADH and FADH2 are electron carriers
true
enzymes in the body become denatured at temperature around 35 C
False, 55 C
all enzymes work at the same rate on their substrates
false
a single specific enzyme can work on many different substrates
false, one
glycolysis takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria
false, cytoplasm
in the electron transport chain stages of cellular respiration ADP is converted back into ATP with help of ATP synthase
True
The production (making)o of proteins is a(n)
anabolic reaction
a net gain of _________ ATP is produced as a result of glycolysis
2
in which stage of cellular respiration is carbon dioxide (CO2) produced>
Kreb’s cycle
in which stage of cellular respiration is the most ATP produced
Electron Transport chain
in which stage of cellular respiration are pyruvic molecules produced
glycolysis
in which stage of cellular respiration is heat and water produced
electron transport chain
in which stage of cellular respiration is ATP produced
all of the above; glycolysis, kreb’s cycle, electron transport chain
citric acid cycle is another name for which stage of cellular respiration
kreb’s cycle
Enzymes function by lowering the ______________ energy of chemical reactions
activation energy
a sequence of enzyme-controlled reactions is called a ________
metabolic pathway
an enzyme’s _____________ allows it to recognize its substrate
conformation
a reaction that uses oxygen is called _______
aerobic
any substance that binds to an enzyme is called a(n)
substrate
list 3 circumstances/factors that may denature an enzyme:
a) exposure to heat
b) radiation
c) electricity
Write the chemical equation that is used to explain cellular respiration below:
C6H12O6 + O2 —-> 36 ATP + CO2 + H2O + Heat
list the stages of the cell cycle and tell what happens at each stage:
G1 - Gap Stage 1 - Growth
S - Synthesis - DNA Replication
G2 - Gap Stage 2 - Growth/organelles duplicatory
M - Mitosis/Meiosis - separating chromosomes to create 2/4 nuclei
C - Cytokinesis - split cytoplasm to create 2/4 daughter cells
The first 3 stages of the cell cycle (G1, S, G2) are often referred to as
interphase
List 3 cells in the body do not complete the cell cycle
skeletal muscle cells, neurons, red blood cells, also gametes
List 3 possible outcomes for a cell that enters the cell cycle
a) the cell specializes (differentiation)
b) the cell dies (apoptosis)
c) continues through cell cycle
split cytoplasm to create 2/4 daughter cells, (fifth stage of the cell cycle)
cytokinesis
the new cells made at the end of the cell cycle
daughter cells
TRUE OR FALSE: Human cells continually divide forever
FALSE, because telomeres shorten until they can’t be used anymore
TRUE OR FALSE: All cells completely go through the Cell Cycle
FALSE, some die and some specialize
TRUE OR FALSE: In the S phase of the Cell Cycle, the cytoplasm of the cell splits creating 2 new cells
FALSE
TRUE OR FALSE: If the cell cycle happens too fast cancer could possibly be a result
TRUE
TRUE OR FALSE: Groups of special proteins (enzymes) regulate the progression of the Cell Cycle at different times in the cell cycle called checkpoints
TRUE
List the 4 stages of Mitosis in order
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
In what stage do the chromosomes line up at the equator
metaphase
in what stage to chromosomes first appear
prophase
in what stage does the nuclear membrane disappear
prophase
in which stage are 2 identical diploid nuclei produced
telophase
at what stage are the sister chromatid ripped apart
anaphase
what term is used to describe a human.nuclei cell have 2 sets of chromosomes
diploid (2n)
the nucleus, in what type of cell, does mitosis happen
somatic cell
as a result of mitosis in humans, the nuclei produced have how many chromomes
46
what 3 things happen in meiosis that do not happen in mitosis? put them in the correct sequence they happen
a) synapsis
b) crossing over
c) skipping interphase/replication
what is the name of the specific type of cell that undergoes meiosis
Germ cell
the scientific name for sex cell is
gamete
how many nuclei are produced as a result of meiosis
4
how many chromosomes are in a nucleus produced as a result of meiosis
23
as the result of meiosis the 4 nuclei produced only have one set of chromosomes. If a cell’s nucleus only has one set of chromosomes, that is referred to as
haploid
as a result of ________, 36 ATP and other products are produced from one molecule of glucose and oxygen
cellular respiration
The process that changes glucose into pyruvate is called
glycolysis
as a result of fermentation, ________ and _______ are produced
2 ATP, lactic acid
______________ are produced int he first 2 stages of cellular respiration and they are used to allow hydrogen ions to pass from inner membrane of the mitochondria to the outer membrane
electrons
hydrogen ions need to pass through __________ to signal it to add a phosphate group to ADP to make ATP
ATP synthase
what are the reactants of cellular respiration
glucose, oxygen
what are the 2 electron carriers produced in the 2nd stage of cellular respiration
NADH, FADH2
List the 3 stages of cellular respiration
glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain
end products of glycolysis
(4) 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP net gain, H+ electrons, NADH
end products of kreb’s
(6) 2 ATP, citric acid, electrons, NADH, FADH2, CO2
end products of ETC
(3) 24-32 ATP, H2O, heat
What is the final electron exceptor in the ETC/cellular respiration
O2/Oxygen
When there is not enough oxygen, only 2 ATP and lactic acid are made
fermentation
Lactic acid builds up in a (usually muscle) cell, we want it to get excreted, it’ll go to the liver, which turns it back into ________, can happen between ___ and ___ minutes
glucose, 60, 90
The enzyme that breaks the hydrogen bonds between the DNA to go with the original DNA templates is called
DNA polymerase
The nitrogen bases in DNA are
Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine
The enzyme that removes the RNA primers form the newly created DNA strands is called
exonuclease
TRUE OR FALSE: The entire DNA is copied at the same time
FALSE, different times
TRUE OR FALSE: the bonds that hold the DNA in its double helix shape are peptide bonds
FALSE, hydrogen bonds
When DNA is replicated the DNA Is unwound and the copied. Write the complimentary DNA strand to AATTAATTCCGG:
TTAATTAAGGCC
Any strand with ‘T’ in it is automatically…
DNA
Why does DNA replication have to happen in cells as they progress through the cell cycle
because the two new daughter cells have to have their own complete cells of DNA
How does DNA polymerase know where to start?
the RNA primers
what does the letter itself stand for on a DNA template
the letter itself is a nitrogen base
what does the letter, strand, and dash stand for on a DNA template
the letter, strand, and dash is a phosphate group; deoxyribose
How many nucleotide parties make up your DNA?
3 billion
____________ on your DNA contain the information to make proteins
Genes
Another name given for protein synthesis is
gene expression
Protein synthesis in two steps: correct order and brief description!
Transcription - when a gene is copied into mRNA
Translation - tRNA reads mRNA to make a protein
The enzyme ____________ breaks the hydrogen bonds between the DNA nucleotides which in turn unzips the DNA so mRNA can be made
RNA polymerase
A sequence of 3 nucleotides such as (AAG) is called a
codon
the building blocks of proteins are
amino acids
where does protein synthesis take place?
transcription - nucleus
translation - at ribozomes in cytoplasm
the started codon on mRNA for making a protein is
AUG
the enzyme responsible for creating the mRNA strand is
RNA polymerase
Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains the information to make a specific
protein
The complementary RNA strand to AATTAATTCCGG is
UUAAUUAAGGCC
Proteins are composed of long chains of
amino acids
List 3 differences between DNA and RNA
DNA is double-stranded, RNA is single-stranded
DNA has ‘T’’s, RNA has ‘U’’s
DNA is your entire genome, RNA is a single gene
DNA is deoxyribose, RNA is ribose
How many different amino acids make up our proteins?
20
In which stage does this occur?
A) Mitosis
B) Meiosis
C) DNA Replication
D) Cellular Respiration
E) Protein Synthesis
GLYCOLYSIS
D) Cellular Respiration
In which stage does this occur?
A) Mitosis
B) Meiosis
C) DNA Replication
D) Cellular Respiration
E) Protein Synthesis
SYNAPSIS
B) Meiosis
In which stage does this occur?
A) Mitosis
B) Meiosis
C) DNA Replication
D) Cellular Respiration
E) Protein Synthesis
Citric Acid
D) Cellular Respiration
In which stage does this occur?
A) Mitosis
B) Meiosis
C) DNA Replication
D) Cellular Respiration
E) Protein Synthesis
PROPHASE
A) Mitosis
In which stage does this occur?
A) Mitosis
B) Meiosis
C) DNA Replication
D) Cellular Respiration
E) Protein Synthesis
EXONUCLEASE
C) DNA Replication
In which stage does this occur?
A) Mitosis
B) Meiosis
C) DNA Replication
D) Cellular Respiration
E) Protein Synthesis
DIPLOID NUCLEI
A) Mitosis
In which stage does this occur?
A) Mitosis
B) Meiosis
C) DNA Replication
D) Cellular Respiration
E) Protein Synthesis
AMINO ACIDS
E) Protein Synthesis
In which stage does this occur?
A) Mitosis
B) Meiosis
C) DNA Replication
D) Cellular Respiration
E) Protein Synthesis
HELICASE
C) DNA Replication
In which stage does this occur?
A) Mitosis
B) Meiosis
C) DNA Replication
D) Cellular Respiration
E) Protein Synthesis
RNA Polymerase
E) Protein Synthesis
In which stage does this occur?
A) Mitosis
B) Meiosis
C) DNA Replication
D) Cellular Respiration
E) Protein Synthesis
GLUCOSE
D) Cellular Respiration
In which stage does this occur?
A) Mitosis
B) Meiosis
C) DNA Replication
D) Cellular Respiration
E) Protein Synthesis
CROSSING OVER
B) Meiosis (PROPHASE I)
In which stage does this occur?
A) Mitosis
B) Meiosis
C) DNA Replication
D) Cellular Respiration
E) Protein Synthesis
METAPHASE II
B) Meiosis
In which stage does this occur?
A) Mitosis
B) Meiosis
C) DNA Replication
D) Cellular Respiration
E) Protein Synthesis
PYRUVIC ACID
D) Cellular Respiration
In which stage does this occur?
A) Mitosis
B) Meiosis
C) DNA Replication
D) Cellular Respiration
E) Protein Synthesis
CODONS
E) Protein Synthesis
In which stage does this occur?
A) Mitosis
B) Meiosis
C) DNA Replication
D) Cellular Respiration
E) Protein Synthesis
tRNA
E) Protein Synthesis
large molecules in the nucleus of a cell that contains all the genetic information of an organism
DNA
much smaller molecules and contains the information of a single gene
RNA
what are the bases of RNA
adenine, uracil, guanine, cytosine
is mRNA small enough to escape the nucleus or no?
yes. it leaves the nucleus and relays information to the ribosomes
there are over ________ different proteins in the body
100,000
a sequence of three nucleotides
codon
a segment of DNA, code for one protein
gene
A, T, G, C, ——- “U” replace “t” if RNA
nitrogen bases
consists of a nitrogen base, sugar, and a phosphate group
A) 3 billion of these pairs compose the DNA strand
nucleotides
bonds that hold nucleotides together and hold DNA in a double helix
hydrogen bonds
example of an amino acid
CCG is proline
amino acids bonded together in long chains to form proteins
polypeptide chains
bonds formed between the amino acids holding them in proper sequence
peptide bonds
a sequence of three nucleotides (codon) attached to a tRNA
anticodon
DNA must ______ at one specific section (gene)
uncoil
mRNA contains information to _________ a specific protein
assemble
Whenn mRNA is made DNA winds back in ___________
double helix
within a cell many thousands of chemical reactions take place to keep the cell in _____________. a constant supply of energy is needed for these reactions and enzymes to control the rate at which these reactions take place
homeostasix
Examples of chemical reactions:
cellular respiration, protein synthesis, cell cycle, mitosis, meiosis, DNA replication
the set of chemical reactions that acquire, store, and release energy in cells
cellular metabolism
the energy for cellular metabolism comes from the _________ of nutrient molecules from the diet
chemical bonds
build large molecules from small ones
dehydration synthesis is an example
anabolic reaction
breakdown of larger molecules to small ones
hydrolysis is an example
catabolic reaction
examples of anabolic reactions by dehydration synthesis
the production of glycogen (polysaccharide)
the production of triglycerides
the production of proteins
the production of nucleic acids
examples of catabolic reactions by hydrolysis
breakdown of carbohydrates into monosaccharides (digestion)
breakdown of fats into glycerol and fatty acids
breakdown of proteins into amino acids
breakdown of nucleic acids into sugar, phosphoric acid, and purine/pyrimidine
splits DNA strand in half
Helicase
single stranded binding proteins
SSB
starts the process of DNA replication by making RNA
primase
aDDS bases, can only be Fe added from 5” to 3”
DNA Polymerase
seals up the fragments of DNA in both strands
ligase
removes all the RNA primers from both strands of DNA
exonuclease
Explain the DNA complementary strand
Since DNA has two strands, every DNA sequence has a complementary sequence running parallel. In the complementary sequence, Adenine (A) is always paired with Thymine (T), and Cytosine (C) is always paired with Guanine (G).
Semi-conservative
each strand of DNA serves as a template to make a new, complementary strand
provides the acetyl group for energy synthesis in the Krebs cycle
Acetyl CoA
Acetyl CoA is created by ____________during cellular respiration and subsequently enters the Krebs cycle
pyruvate
