Anatomy Ch 3 Test Flashcards
the basic unit of structure and function in organisms
cell
in 1665, who discovered cells
Robert hooke
who invented the complex microscope
Antony van leeuwenhoek
cell theory:
1) all organisms are made up of one or more cells
2) cells are the basic unit of structure and function of all organisms
3) all cells come from other cells that already exist
what type of cell will be directly affected by a cell or virus getting in?
prokaryotic
cells without a nucleus or membrane bound organelles
prokaryotic
cells with a nucleus and membrane bound organelles
eukaryotic
cells come in all different _______ and _______
sizes and shapes
different tissues contain cells with different sizes and shapes for ___________ purposes
functional
a molecule that specifically binds to a receptor protein on a cell’s plasma membrane
ligand
examples of ligands
hormones, neurotransmitters, nutrients, enzymes, ions, antibodies
all of the examples of ligands are…
chemicals
main structures of a cell:
1) plasma membrane - also called cell membrane
2) nucleus
3) cytoplasm/organelles
is the cytoplasm a structure?
no
plasma membrane functions
protection - serves as a barrier from outside of the cell
semi permeable - allows only certain molecules to enter or exit
communication - allows cells to talk to their surroundings
plasma membrane composition:
lipid (phospholipids)
proteins
carbohydrates
some cholesterol
phospholipid molecules: (in the plasma membrane) have a double layer that acts as the __________ for the cell
barrier
what all do phospholipid molecules allow through
allows oxygen, carbon dioxide, steroids to enter and exit but few other molecules can get through this layer
Cell surface proteins (3):
a. Marker protein - identifies the cell
b. Channel protein - allows specific molecules to enter & exit
c. Receptor protein - allows cells to communicate
__________ is a name given to cell surface proteins that extend through the lipid bilayer and may protrude from one or both sides of the cell membrane
integral protein
the area inside the cell surround the nucleus
cytoplasm
the __________ are found in the cytoplasm of the cell
organelles
there is a fluid in the cytoplasm called ___________
cytosol
contains the DNA and an organelle called the nucleolus
nucleus
The nucleolus produces…
ribosomes
The nucleus us enclosed by the __________
nuclear membrane
The nuclear membrane acts just like the ________ of the cell, and has the same composition as the _________
plasma membrane, plasma membrane
True or False: Every structure in your body is made of proteins
True
two main/primary compositions of plasma membrane
lipids and proteins
big, spherical structure found inside the nucleus; contains DNA
nucelolus
cells have many __________ __________ that work together to perform the necessary functions for life
compartmentalized organelles
the first signs of amytrophic lateral shclerosis, also known as _____________ diseases, are subtle - a foot drages, clothing feels heavy on the body, or an exercise usually done with ease becomes difficult. Usually within _____ years of noticing these first signs, failure of the _________ that stimulate muscles becomes so widespread that breathing unaided becomes impossible.
Lou Gehrig’s; five; motor neurons;
ALS currently has no treatment. part of the reason is that neurons do not _______, so they are difficult to grow in the lab in order to test a new drug.
divide
To treat ALS, potentially, a technology called __________ can take a specialized cell type back to a stage in which it can specialize in any of several ways.
cellular reprogramming
_______ is a group of closely related diseases that can affect many different organs
cancer
the lifetime risk of developing cancer is _____ for males and _____ for females
1 in 2; 1 in 3
Cancer results from ________ that alter the cell cycle in __________
mutations; somatic cells
5 characteristics cancer shares
hyperplasia; dedifferentiation; invasiveness; angiogenesis; metastasis
hyperplasia is __________-
uncontrolled cell division
dedifferentiation is ____________
loss of the specialized structures and functions of the normal type of cell from which the cancer cells descend
invasiveness is ________
the ability of cancer cells to break through boundaries
angiogenesis is ___________
the ability of cancer cells to induce extension of nearby blood vessels
metastasis is _________
the spread of cancer cells to other tissues through the bloodstream or lymphatic system
_________ are small structures in a cell that perform specific functions to keep the cell in homeostasis
organelles
list the functions, shape, general location in cell, and any special notes about: nucleus
functions: contains DNA; Controls cell growth and reproduction; regulates gene expression
shape: generally spherical or oval
general location: central part of the cell (typically in eukaryotic)
special notes: surrounded by a double membrane; contains nucleoplasm and nucleolus where ribosome synthesis occurs
list the functions, shape, general location in cell, and any special notes about:
Functions:
Synthesizes ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Assembles ribosomal subunits
Shape:
Generally round or irregular
General Location:
Within the nucleus
Special Notes:
Not membrane-bound
Visible during interphase as a dense region in the nucleus
brief brief brief list the functions, shape, general location in cell, and any special notes about: nuclear membrane
Functions:
Encloses the nucleus
Regulates the transport of molecules in and out of the nucleus
Shape:
Double-layered membrane
General Location:
Surrounds the nucleus
Special Notes:
Composed of inner and outer lipid bilayers
Contains nuclear pores for selective transport
brief brief brief list the functions, shape, general location in cell, and any special notes about: ribosomes
Ribosomes
Functions:
Synthesizes proteins by translating mRNA
Shape:
Small, round structures (subunits)
General Location:
Free in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER)
Special Notes:
Composed of rRNA and proteins
Present in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
brief brief brief list the functions, shape, general location in cell, and any special notes about: mitochondria
Functions:
Produces ATP through cellular respiration
Regulates metabolic processes
Shape:
Rod-shaped or oval
General Location:
Scattered throughout the cytoplasm
Special Notes:
Has a double membrane (inner and outer)
Contains its own DNA and ribosomes, enabling some independent replication
brief brief brief list the functions, shape, general location in cell, and any special notes about: lysosomes
Functions:
Digests and breaks down waste materials and cellular debris
Contains digestive enzymes
Shape:
Spherical or oval
General Location:
Scattered throughout the cytoplasm
Special Notes:
Often referred to as the cell’s “clean-up crew”
Plays a role in autophagy (removal of damaged organelles)
brief brief brief list the functions, shape, general location in cell, and any special notes about: vacuoles
Functions:
Storage of substances (water, nutrients, waste)
Helps maintain turgor pressure in plant cells
Shape:
Generally large and membrane-bound; can vary in shape
General Location:
Predominantly in the cytoplasm; larger in plant cells
Special Notes:
Plant cells often have a central vacuole, while animal cells may have smaller vacuoles
Involved in cellular metabolism and maintaining pH balance
brief brief brief list the functions, shape, general location in cell, and any special notes about: endoplasmic reticulum
Functions:
Synthesizes proteins (rough ER) and lipids (smooth ER)
Detoxifies harmful substances
Shape:
Network of membrane-bound tubules and sacs
General Location:
Adjacent to the nucleus and throughout the cytoplasm
Special Notes:
Rough ER has ribosomes on its surface; smooth ER does not
Plays a role in intracellular transport and processing of biomolecules
brief brief brief list the functions, shape, general location in cell, and any special notes about: microtubules and microfilaments
Microtubules
Functions:
Provides structural support
Aids in cell division and intracellular transport
Shape:
Hollow, tube-like structures
General Location:
Throughout the cytoplasm, forming part of the cytoskeleton
Special Notes:
Composed of tubulin protein subunits
Involved in forming the mitotic spindle during cell division
Microfilaments
Functions:
Supports cell shape
Facilitates cell movement and muscle contraction
Shape:
Thin, thread-like structures
General Location:
Throughout the cytoplasm, also part of the cytoskeleton
Special Notes:
Composed of actin protein subunits
Plays a role in cytokinesis and cell motility
brief brief brief list the functions, shape, general location in cell, and any special notes about: cilia
Functions:
Move fluids and particles across the cell surface
Assist in locomotion for certain cells
Shape:
Short, hair-like projections
General Location:
Found on the surface of some eukaryotic cells
Special Notes:
Composed of microtubules arranged in a “9+2” structure
Involved in sensory functions and can be found in respiratory tract and reproductive organs
brief brief brief list the functions, shape, general location in cell, and any special notes about: flagella
Functions:
Propel cells through liquid environments
Aid in cell motility
Shape:
Long, whip-like projections
General Location:
Found on the surface of certain cells, such as sperm
Special Notes:
Composed of microtubules arranged in a “9+2” structure
Typically fewer in number than cilia and longer in length
brief brief brief list the functions, shape, general location in cell, and any special notes about: vesicles
Functions:
Transport materials within the cell
Store substances and facilitate metabolism
Shape:
Small, membrane-bound sacs
General Location:
Scattered throughout the cytoplasm
Special Notes:
Can originate from the endoplasmic reticulum or Golgi apparatus
Involved in processes like exocytosis and endocytosis
brief brief brief list the functions, shape, general location in cell, and any special notes about: centrosome
Functions:
Organizes microtubules
Plays a key role in cell division (spindle formation)
Shape:
Typically cylindrical structure
General Location:
Near the nucleus in the cytoplasm
Special Notes:
Composed of a pair of centrioles surrounded by pericentriolar material
Important for maintaining cell structure and facilitating mitosis
brief brief brief list the functions, shape, general location in cell, and any special notes about: chromatin
Functions:
Packages DNA to fit in the nucleus
Regulates gene expression and DNA replication
Shape:
Fibrous and thread-like structure
General Location:
Found within the nucleus
Special Notes:
Composed of DNA and proteins (histones)
Exists in two forms: euchromatin (active) and heterochromatin (inactive)
brief brief brief list the functions, shape, general location in cell, and any special notes about: golgi apparatus
Functions:
Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles
Shape:
Stack of flattened membrane-bound sacs (cisternae)
General Location:
Located near the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in the cytoplasm
Special Notes:
Often referred to as the cell’s “post office”
Involved in the formation of lysosomes and vesicles for transport
brief brief brief list the functions, shape, general location in cell, and any special notes about: peroxisomes
Functions:
Break down fatty acids and amino acids
Detoxify harmful substances (e.g., hydrogen peroxide)
Shape:
Small, spherical membrane-bound organelles
General Location:
Scattered throughout the cytoplasm
Special Notes:
Contain enzymes like catalase to convert hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen
Involved in lipid metabolism and the production of plasmalogens (important for cell membranes)
which organelle is mostly used for plants
vacuoles/vesicles
how do molecules enter and exit through the plasma membrane
passive and active transport
no energy used by the cell; not its own energy; you can’t stop it
passive transport
examples of passive transport
diffusion; osmosis; facilitated diffusion; filtration
cell’s energy must be used (40%)
active transport
examples of active transport
endocytosis and exocytosis
when molecules move from an area of high concentration to one of a low concentration through a cell’s membrane
diffusion
this is how molecules like oxygen, carbon dioxide, and steroids enter and exit the cell
diffusion
when molecules of water move from an area of high concentration to one of a low concentration through a cell’s memraben
osmosis
this is actually just like diffusion as far as water moving from high to lower concentration, but water moves through pores in the membrane not directly through phospholipid bilayer
osmosis
when molecules are too large to enter or exit by normal means and instead have to enter or exit through special carrier proteins
facilitated diffusion
in facilitated diffusion, is the movement from high to low concentration, or low to high concentration?
high to low concentration
How do glucose and some ions have to enter the cell?
facilitated diffusion
molecules are forced from regions of higher pressure to regions of lower pressure
filtration
does filtration have ot be from high conc to low conc?
no
filtration is how water leaves _______
capillaries
what is the only example talked about with the human body and filtration?
water leaving capillaries
the movement of molecules in through the plasma membrane, usually too large to enter any other way
endocytosis
how many ways of endocytosis are there
3
pinocytosis is
fluid coming in
phagocytosis
actual molecule (protein/amino acid/etc.)
receptor-mediated endocytosis
a receptor pulls a molecule in
the movement of molecules out of the plasma membrane, that are usually too large to exit by itself
exocytosis
in endocytosis, the cell never opens up, but rather __________
grows around the protein
what is the source of energy for active transport systems?
ATP
the active transport systems have __________ energy
cellular
passive transport systems source of energy is
molecular motion
the life span/cycle of a cell (the stages of a cell’s life)
cell cycle
growth stage of a cell/Gap stage 1
G1
DNA is replicated in the nucleus - cell is still growing
synthesis
organelles replicated inside the cell and the cell is still growing/Gap stage 2
G2
new nuclei made with DNA inside
M (Mitosis/Meiosis)
cytoplasm splits creating new cells
cyotkinesis
sex cells are called
gametes
skin cells are
somatic cells
the first 3 stages of the cell cycle
interphase
How does the cell know if it is going through mitosis or meiosis?
It depends on the type of cell that is being created. There are somatic cells and gametes (Germ cells). Somatic cells go through mitosis, and gametes go through meiosis.
Do all cells complete the Cell Cycle?
NO!! Certain cells are produced, function, and die without reproducing. These include: erythrocyte, skeletal muscle cells, neurons
haploid is ____ set(s) of chromosomes. Diploid is ___ set(s)
1, 2
a process in which chromosomes within a somatic cells are separated creating 2 new identical diploid nuclei
mitosis
there are ____ individual steps of Mitoses (_______)
4, P.M.A.T.
body cells
somatic cells
how many chromosomes do somatic/body cells have in their nuclei
46
refers to nuclei/cells with 2 copies of each chromosomes (46)
Diploid (2n)
what does “n” refer to
number of human chromosomes
a process in which the cytoplasm of a cell divides creating 2 new cells
cytokinesis
DNA that has yet to be coiled into chromosome form> DNA is in this form during interphase
chromatin
protein disc that holds homologous chromosomes together
centromere
organelles build of microtubules that move chromosomes within a nucleus during mitosis and meiosis
centrioles
identical pairs of chromosomes present during stages of mitosis and meiosis (X-shape)
sister chromatids
a complex organelle crucial for microtubule organization and cell cycle progression
centrosome
Germ cells can also be thought of as _________________
reproductive stem cells
What phase of Mitosis is this?
1) Chromatin (DNA) forms chromosomes (Sister chromosomes)
2) Nuclear membrane starts to disintegrate
3) Nucleolus disappears
3) Centrioles appear producing spindle fibers
Prophase
What phase of Mitosis is this?
1) Centrioles move to poles
2) Spindle fibers form centrioles attach to chromosomes (Sister chromosomes)
3) Spindle fibers move chromosomes to equator
Metaphase
What phase of Mitosis is this?
1) Spindle fibers pull chromosomes apart into individual chromatids
2) Chromatids are pulled by spindle fibers to opposite poles
Anaphase
What phase of Mitosis is this?
1) Chromatids turn back into chromatin
2) Nuclear membrane reappears (2)
3) Nucleolus reappears (2)
4) 2 new nuclei produced
Telophase
Why is mitosis important?
Before cells can divide the genetic material (DNA) in the nucleus must be separated evenly so that each new cell has its own set of DNA. After mitosis, when cytokinesis is completed, 2 new identical cells with 46 chromosomes each are produced.
the division of the chromosomes in the nucleus of a somatic cells, which results in the production of 2 new nuclei
mitosis
MITOSIS:
A) The 2 new nuclei are _______ (2n)
b) The 2 new nuclei are ________ to one another.
c) Mitosis is the ______ step of the cell cycle
d) Mitosis starts with a nucleus that has ______ chromosomes in it.
diploid, identical, 4th, 92
cell specialization
differentiation
_________ cells are not differentiated
stem
there are 2 types of stem cells:
embryonic and adult
Programmed cell death
apoptosis
What is the difference between chromatin and chromosomes? Are they also alike?
The difference is the shape. Yes - they are both DNA.
What does molecule concentration have to do with diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion?
when molecules move to the membrane, it has to be from high to low concentration
What is equilibrium?
when the concentration is even on both sides
a process that separates the chromosomes in the nucleus of a German cell, resulting in the production of 4 genetically different haploid nuclei
meiosis
in meiosis, are the 4 cells produced different or the same?
different
the 4 new nuclei in meiosis are diploid or haploid?
haploid; 1n = 23
how many chromosomes at the end of meiosis
23
meiosis as 2 Nuclear divisions (goes through PMAT twice) to get chromosome number down to 23. What is skipped?
skips interphase the second time
AS a result of meiosis, then cyotkinesis, ________ are produced
gametes
Three processes that ONLY occur in meiosis: These do not happen in mitosis.
Synapsis; Crossing over; Skipping replication
Meiosis I; which stage is this:
a) homologous chromosomes line up at the equator. moved there by spindle fibers from centrioles
metaphase I
the pairing of homologous chromosomes that occurs in prophase of the first meiotic division and during which crossing-over may occur.
synapsis
Meiosis I: what phase is this
a) nuclear membrane and nucleolus disintegrate
b) centrioles with spindle fibers move to poles
c) chromatin turns into chromosome form (homologous chromosomes - XX)
d) Synapsis occurs (XX) then crossing over happens
prophase I
Meiosis I; what phase is this
a) nuclear membrane reforms around chromoes
b) nucleolus reforms
c) two new genetically different diploid (2n=4) nuclei are produced
telophase i
Meiosis I; what phase is this
a) homologous chromosomes are separated, (X ——- X)
b) chromosomes are pulled to each pole by spindle fibers
After Telophase I, cytokinesis does happen, and 2 new cells are made but they do not go into the beginning of the cell cycle like normal cells would. These cells, which will be gametes, skip INTERPHASE (________) and start ________.
G1, S, G2, MEIOSIS-II
Meiosis II which phase
a) centromere broken and chromsomes are separated
b) chromatids pulled to poles
anaphase ii
meiosis II which phase
a) nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear
b) chromosomes turn into chromatin
c) centrioles and spindles disappear
d) four new haploid nuclei produced
telpohase ii
meiosis Ii which phase
a) nuclear membrane disappears
b) centrioles and spindles reappear
c) chromatin turns into chromosome form
prophase ii
meiosis Ii which phase
a) chromosomes line up at equator
metaphase ii
after telophase ii, does cytokinesis occur
yes
daughter cell of a stem cells whose own daughter called are restricted to follow specific lineages
progenitor cell
structures made from DNA sequences and proteins found at the end of a chromosome
telomere
FINALLY CH 3 IS DONE DONT FORGET ABOUT CH 2 AND MUSCLES DONT GIVE UP YOU GOT THIS*****
GO TO BED BEFORE 12:10
