2. Political authority and reform AII Flashcards
how many serfs did AII emancipate in 1861
51 million
what has his decision to emancipate been hailed as
the product of the tsars own liberal and humanitarian ideas
what was the emancipation followed by
reforms in other areas such as the army, local gov, judiciary
what has the series of reforms led to
him being given name ‘Tsar Liberator’
what does Emmons refer to emancipation edict as
piece of state directed manipulation of society aimed to strengthen social and political stability rather than product of liberal thinking
what does Emmons state reforms were intended for
maintaining tsarist authority
what does Emmons interpretation suggest
it backfired and created division between gov and landed gentry
what could AII views on serfdom have been shaped by
- romantic tutor- Zhukovsky
- travels around empire
- party of st Petersburg progress
which other family members had been committed to abolition of serfdom for sometime
GD Konstantin (Brother) GD Elena (AUNT)
what were alexanders natural tendencies
conservative rather than liberal
what alarmed AII and convinced him that change needed to occur
increase in peasant uprisings since 1840s
what were the main catalyst for action
humiliations an efficiencies of Crimean war
who pleaded for reform in order to ‘strengthen the state and restore dignity’
Dmitry Milyutin
what did Dimtry Milyutin believe about the army
needed modernising and only a free population would provide labour needed for military improvement
what was AII like in conserving autocracy
determined to maintain autocracy and uphold god given duties but felt pressure for reform
how did AII begin his reign
releasing political prisoners and pardoning decemberists
who were decemberists
group involved in plot to assassinate his father
what did AII relax at start of his reign
controls on censorship, restrictions on foreign travel and uni entrance
what did AII ask nobles for in March 1856
asked them to produce suggestions for an emancipation measure
how did AII try and win noble support for emancipation
toured countryside giving pro emancipation speeches
who did emancipation edict initially apply to
privately owned serfs
when did state serfs receive freedom
1866
what did emancipation edict grant
serfs freedom and an allotment of land
what did landowners receive under emancipation edict
government compensation
what were freed serfs required to pay
redemption payments to the government over 49 years
where did the serfs have to stay until redemption payments were made
within the mir/peasant commune
what was the mir made responsible for
distributing allotments, controlling farming and collecting and paying peasants taxes
what were volosts established for
to supervise the mirs
what were volosts
peasant communities consisting of several villages/hamlets
from when did the volosts run their own courts
1863
what did the volosts replace
the landlords jurisdiction over serfs
what period was there befpre freedoms were granted
a two year period of temporary obligation
what happened during the temporary obligation period
allocations were worked out
what land did landowners keep
meadows, pasture, woodland and a personal holding
what land was given to the mirs
open fields
how many serfs remained ‘temporary obligated’ to their landlords until 1881
15%
when was redemption made compulsory
1881
who did well out of land allocation
kulaks
why did kulaks do well
bought up extra land-produce surplus grain- export
who raised living standards
those who obtained passport to leave Mir- worked in industrialising cities
how did landowners benefit
used compensation to get out of debt
why did peasants feel cheated by emancipatopn
land allocations unfair + land allocated divided as sons inherited land and shared
what persisted as a result of mir being so traditional
subsistence farming and technical backwardness
what percentage of peasantry able to produce surplus by 1878
50%
what made rural life difficult after emancipation
loss of former benefits, restrictions on travel and burden of redemption payments
what led to violent outbreaks in countryside
resentment of kulaks
what did landowners resent after emancipation and what occurred as a result
loss of influence- student protests
who reorganised the armed forces
Dmitry Milyutin
what did milyutin want armed forces to be
smaller, more professional and efficient and less expensive
what was made compulsory for all classes (military)
conscription at the age of 21
what was the length of military service reduced from and to
25-15 years with 10 in reserves
which military system was abandoned under milyutins reforms
military colonies
what were the reforms to military punishments
they were made less severe
what medical reforms were there in the military
better provisioning and medical care established
what happened to weaponary and command structure in reforms
modern weaponry and a new command structure established
why were military colleges set up
to provide better training for non-noble officer corps
how was literacy within the army improved
mass army education campaigns in 1870s-90s
what happened to the officer class as a result of military reforms
still remained largely aristocratic
how did the wealthy get around the military reforms
found substitutes to serve in their place
did military reform fix problems of supply and leadership?
no problems still continued
who did the army struggle to win wars against
turkey (1877-78)
japan (1904-05)
Germany (1914-17)
zemstva
system of elected local councils established to replace rights and obligations of former serf owning gentry
at which two levels were the zemstva
district and provincial
how were the members of the zemstva chosen
through a system of electoral colleges
problem with voting procedure of zemstva
arranged in a way that allowed nobility to dominate
what were the zemstva given the power to do
improve public services, develop industrial projects and administer poor relief in times of hardship
what did the establishment of a degree of representative government raise the hopes of
members of intelligentsia who wanted representative national assembly
why was power of zemstva limited
had no control over taxes and provincial gov could overturn zemstva decisions
why were the zemstvas never truly people assemblies
they attracted doctors, lawyers and scientists who used meetings as opportunity to debate political issues and criticise central gov
in which areas was an overhaul of law particularly needed
property rights and a change in the administration of local justice
what had property rights and local justice formerly been in hands of
judge examining written evidence prepared by landowner/police
what was absent in old legal system
jury, laywers and examination of witnesses
accused considered guilty until proven innocent and judges decision was final
how was equality established before the law
single system of local, provincial and national courts
accused presumed innocent until proven guilty and could employ a lawyer to defend himself
who were criminal cases heard before under the reform
barristers and a jury
who were the jury selected from
a list of property owners
who were judges appointed by and how did they benefit from reform
tsar
given better training and pay
who were local justices of the peace elected by
zemstva every 3 years
who were local justices of the peace independent from
political control
who were courts opened to
the public
where were national trials recorded
in the Russian courier- a gov newspaper
benefits of new legal system
- fairer and less corrupt
- public flocked to open courts
what did the legal reforms provide the opportunity for
layers of intelligentsia to criticise the regime
why did new juries sometimes acquit guilty
they sympathised with their plight
what was done to counter juries acquitting guilty through sympathy
new decree issued to permit political crimes to be tried by special procedures
where was trial by jury never established
Poland, the western provinces and the causcasus
which courts were excluded from legal reforms
ecclesiastical and military
why did the abolition of serfdom increase need for numeracy and literacy
peasants trying to run private smallholdings
what provided the opportunity for change in control and funding of education
establishment of zemstva
who were the education reforms under
alexander golovnin
what were universtities given the oppurtuntiy to do under the educational reform
govern themselves and appoint
who was responsibility for schooling transferred from and to
from Russian orthodox church to zemstva
which 2 tiers of education were extended
primary and secondary
what were schools declared
‘open to all’ regardless of class and sex
what effect did new independence given to universities have
increasing number of radical and militant thinkers
what happened as a result of education reforms being so successful
after 1866 it was deemed necessary to reassert gov control
how was censorship relaxed
restrictions on publishers reduced
foreign publications permitted with gov approval
press allowed to print editorials with comment on gov policy
what did relaxation of censorship lead to
short lived growth in number of books, journals and newspapers on sale in russia
what brought a retightening of gov control in 1870s
growth in critical writing
what areas was there some reform in
Russian orthodox church
conditions of jews and ethnic minorities
economic liberalisation
what led to a reversal f the lenient treatment of poles and jews
1863 polish rebellion
what was financial liberalisation at the expense of
the peasants
