Temperament, Personality, and Identity Flashcards
____ refers to a person’s basic disposition, which influences how he or she responds to ____. It has a ____ component and, to some is apparent at ____ and predictive of later ____, especially when it’s measured after ____ ____ of age.
Temperament; Situations; Genetic Component; Birth; Personality; Three Years
Evidence for a genetic contribution is provided by studies showing that identical twins are more similar than fraternal twins in terms of temperament and indicating that some temperament qualities correlate with certain ____ ____.
Physiological Reactions
Kagan’s research (1989) confirmed that ____ ____ has a biological contribution and is a relatively ____ characteristic. He found that children identified as either ____ or ____ at 21 months of age were ____ ____ at 5-1/2 and 7-1/2 years and that level of inhibition was related to ____ ____: When faced with unfamiliar situations, ____ ____ had a higher heart rate, pupillary dilation, and larger changes in blood pressure than did ____ children.
Behavioral Inhibition; Stable; Inhibited or Uninhibited; Similarly Categorized; Physiological Reactivity; Inhibited Children; Uninhibited
Additional confirmation of the stability of behavioral inhibition is provided by research showing that inhibition in early childhood is associated with an increased risk for ____ ____ in ____ and with a ___________ in early adulthood.
Social Anxiety in Adolescence; Less Positive and Less Active Social Life
Note, that there’s also evidence that level of behavioral inhibition can be modified by ____ ____ -____ ____, with warm, supportive parenting reducing the intense physiological reactions of inhibited children and cold, intrusive parenting and overprotective parenting increasing their intensity.
Parental Childe-Rearing Practices
Thomas and Chess distinguish between nine basic temperament qualities — ___________________.
activity level, rhythmicity, approach/withdrawal, adaptability, threshold of responsiveness, intensity of reaction, quality of mood, distractibility, and persistence.
According to these investigators, most babies can be categorized based on these qualities as easy, difficult, or slow-to-warm-up: _______, ______, _______.
Easy Children; Difficult Children; Slow-to-Warm-Up Children
____ ____ are even-tempered, have regular sleeping and eating patterns, adapt easily to new situations and people, and have a preponderance of positive moods.
Easy Children
____ ____ are irritable, withdraw from new situations and people, and have unpredictable habits and a preponderance of negative moods.
Difficult Children
____ -to-____ -____ ____ are inactive and somewhat negative in mood and take time to adjust to new stimuli.
Slow-to-Warm-Up Children
Thomas and Chess found that many children categorized as ____ or ____ at age three were rated, respectively, as ____ or ____ -____ as young adults. However, the relationship between early temperament and later adjustment was not perfect; and, based on their findings, these investigators developed a ____-of-____ ____ that predicts that it is the degree of match between parents’ behaviors and their child’s temperament that contributes to die child’s outcomes.
Difficult or Easy; Poorly or Well-Adjusted; Goodness-of-Fit Model
Thomas and Chess also developed a ____ ____ ____ that is designed to help parents interact with their child in ways that are consistent with the child’s temperament.
Parent Guidance Intervention
____ ____ of ____ ____ proposes that the id’s libido (sexual energy) centers on a different part of the body during each stage of development and that personality results from the ways in which conflicts at each stage are resolved.
Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development
Failure to ____ a ____ at any stage often stems from v or ____ ____ of the id’s needs and can result in ____ at that stage.
Resolve a Conflict; Excessive or Insufficient Gratification; Fixation
Freud’s ____ of ____ ____ and the personality outcomes associated with them are summarized in 5 stages.
Stages of Psychosexual Development
____: The mouth is the focus of sensation and stimulation, and weaning is the primary source of conflict. Fixation results in dependence, passivity, gullibility, sarcasm, and orally-focused habits (smoking, nail-biting, overeating, etc.).
Oral Stage (birth-I year)
____: The main issue during this stage is control of bodily wastes, and conflicts stem from issues related to toilet training. Fixation produces anal retentiveness (stinginess, selfishness, obsessive-compulsive behavior) or anal expulsiveness (cruelty, destructiveness, messiness).
Anal Stage (1-3 years)
____: Sexual energy is centered in the genitals; and the primary task is the resolution of the Oedipal conflict, which is marked by a desire for the opposite-sex parent and a view of the same-sex parent as a rival. A successful outcome results from identification with the same-sex parent and development of the superego. Fixation can produce a phallic character, which involves sexual exploitation of others.
Phallic Stage (3-6 years)
____: Libidinal energy is diffuse rather than focused on any one area of the body, and the emphasis is on developing social skills rather than achieving sexual gratification.
Latency Stage (6-12 years)
____: Libido is again centered in the genitals, and a successful outcome in this stage occurs when sexual desire is blended with affection to produce mature sexual relationships.
Genital Stage (12+ years)
____ of ____ ____: Erikson’s personality theory differs from Freud’s in several important ways. First, Erikson stresses the role of ____ (versus sexual) ____, and his stages of development each involve a different ____ ____. Second, Erikson places greater emphasis on the ____ than on the ____, and he assumes that people are ____ ____ and that behavior is due largely to ____ functioning. Finally, Erikson views personality development as a process that continues throughout the ____.
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development; Social; Factors; Psychosocial Crisis; Ego; Id; Basically Rational; Ego; Lifespan
The crises and positive outcomes are associated with his eight ____ of ____ ____.
Stages of Psychosocial Development
____: A positive relationship with one’s primary caregiver during infancy results in a sense of trust and optimism.
Basic Trust vs. Basic Mistrust (infancy)
____: A sense of self (autonomy) develops out of positive interactions with one’s parents or other caregivers.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (toddlerhood)
____: Favorable relationships with family members result in an ability to set goals and devise and carry out plans without infringing on the rights of others.
Initiative vs. Guilt (early childhood)
____: The most important influences at this stage are people in the neighborhood and the school. To avoid feelings of inferiority, the school-age child must master certain social and academic skills.
Industry vs. Inferiority (school age)
____: Peers are the dominant social influence in adolescence. A positive outcome is reflected in a sense of personal identity and a direction for the future.
Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence)
____: The main task during early adulthood is the establishment of intimate bonds of love and friendship. If such bonds are not achieved, self-absorption and isolation result.
Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood)
____: The people one lives and works with are most important during this stage. A generative person exhibits commitment to the well-being of future generations.
Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood)
____: In this final stage, social influence broadens to include all “humankind.” The development of wisdom (an informed, detached concern with life in the face of death) and a sense of integrity require coming to terms with one’s limitations and mortality.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair (maturation/old age)
___________: ____ (1986) divides the lifespan into four periods: ______________________. According to Levinson, the transitions from one period to the next are particularly ____, and it is during these times that ____ ____ in a person’s ____ ____ usually occur.
Levinson’s “Seasons of a Man’s Life”; Levinson; Infancy through Adolescence, Early Adulthood, Middle Adulthood, and Late Adulthood; Stressful; Major Changes; Life Structure
_________ entails leaving the world of childhood and forming the initial foundation for life in the adult world. Tasks include becoming independent from one’s parents and getting involved in college, the military, an entry-level job, etc. This transition leads to the formation of ____ ____, which is an image of an ideal life that guides one’s decisions and choices.
The Early Adult Transition (ages 17 to 22); The Dream
_________ is brought on by the realization that the life Structure built during one’s 20s is not adequate. A sense of urgency develops as the result of ____ to fully enter the ____ ____, and the life structure is ____. This is followed by a period of “____ ____. “
The Age 30 Transition (28 to 33); Pressure; Adult World; Revised; Settling Down
_________ is a time of significant stress and reorganization. An important change is a ____ of ____ ____ as one realizes that one’s goals are not really satisfying and/or will not be fully ____. This period is marked by a shift in perspective from “____ -____ -____ “ to “____ -____ -to-____ “ because of an increasing awareness of one’s ____.
The Mid-Life Transition (40 to 45); Deflation of The Dream; Accomplished; Time-Since-Birth; Time-Left-to-Live; Mortality
Studies not been ____ ____ of Levinson’s theory. For example, Levinson found that the mid-life transition evoked “tumultuous struggles within the self and with the external world” for 80% of the men in his sample, but other studies indicate that only a minority of men and women experience a “____ ____. “
Totally Supportive; Midlife Crisis
Parenting Style: Baumrind and her colleagues (1991) presented one of the most widely cited frameworks for understanding the impact of parenting on developments. Their approach combines two dimensions of parenting – ____ (acceptance and warmth) and ____ (control) – to derive four ____ ____, which are predictive of specific ____ and ____ ____ for children and adolescence.
Responsivity; Demandingness; Parenting Styles; Personality and Behavioral Outcomes
____ ____ exhibit a high degree of demandingness and low responsivity. They impose ____ ____ of conduct, stress obedience, and use physical punishment, threats, deprivation, and other ____ ____ ____ to gain ____. Their offspring are often irritable, aggressive, mistrusting, and dependent and have a ____ ____ of ____ and ____ ____ of ____ -____ and ____ ____.
Authoritarian Parents; Absolute Standards; Power Assertive Techniques; Compliance; Limited Sense of Responsibility; Low Levels of Self-Esteem; Academic Achievement
____ ____ combine rational control with responsivity. Although they set ____ ____ and ____ ____ for their children, they rely on reasoning, praise, explanations, and other ____ ____ to ____ ____, and they ____ ____. The offspring of authoritative parents tend to be assertive, socially responsible, and achievement-oriented, ____ ____ ____ -____, are ____ -____, and usually obtain ____ ____ in school.
Authoritative Parents; Clear Rules and High Standards; Inductive techniques to Gain Compliance; Encourage Independence; Have High Self-Esteem; Self-Confident; High Grades
____ (____) ____ are warm and caring but make few demands and are nonpunitive. They allow their children to make their ____ ____ about what chores to complete. when to go to bed, etc. The children of these parents tend to be ____, impulsive, self-centered, easily frustrated, and ____ in ____ and ____.
Permissive (Indulgent) Parents; Own Decisions; Immature; Low in Achievement and Independence
____ -____ (____) ____ exhibit low levels of responsivity and demandingness, and they may be ____ ____ toward their children. Offspring of these parents have ____ ____ -____ and ____ ____ -____ and are often impulsive, moody, and aggressive. The characteristics of rejecting-neglecting parents resemble those predictive of ____ ____ — i.e., the research has found that adolescent delinquency is associated with a lack of parental warmth, a lack of supervision, and inconsistent or harsh punishment.
Rejecting-Neglecting (uninvolved) Parents; Overtly Hostile; Low Self-Esteem and Poor Self-Control; Juvenile Delinquency
There is evidence that the effects of ____ ____ are moderated by several factors, including the ____ ____. For example, ____ ____ — especially the encouragement of empathy and the use of inductive disciplinary techniques — has been linked to conscience development and other aspects of social responsibility.
Parenting Style; Child’s Temperament; Authoritative Parenting
Kochanska (1991) found, however, that ____ ____ of ____ is a more reliable predictor of ____ ____ six years later for ____, ____ toddlers than for those who are ____ and ____.
Authoritative Parenting of Toddlers; Internalized Conscience; Fearful; Anxious; Nonfearful and Nonanxious
The consequences of parenting style are also influenced by ____ /____ ____. ____ ____ ____, for instance, do well academically even though their parents often rely on many of the parenting practices characteristic of an ____ ____.
Cultural/Ethnic Background; Asian American Adolescents; Authoritarian Style
In general, ____ and ____ ____ ____ do not do as well as ____ ____ in ____ even when ____ parents are ____, apparently because they receive little support from their ____ for ____ ____ of academic ____. In support of the latter, the research has shown that some African American students deliberately ____ ____ to avoid being accused by peers of “____ ____”.
Hispanic and African American Adolescents; Anglo Americans in School; Authoritative; Peers for High Levels of Academic Achievement; Underachieve Academically; Acting White
____ ____: The research has found that ____ ____ affects personality and behavior. For example, there’s evidence that ____ -____ tend to have more rapid language acquisition than ____ -____, achieve grades in school and higher scores on IQ tests, and are usually more achievement-oriented and conscientious; while later-borns are often less cautious and more rebellious, have better relationships, and are more confident in social situations.
Family Composition; Birth Order; First-Borns; Later Borns
The studies have also confirmed that the effects of birth order tend to be ____ because personality and behavior are determined by ____ ____. For instance, regarding family factors, research has found that children’s academic achievement is affected by ____ ____ and the ____ (number of years) between siblings — i.e., the ____ the ____ and the ____ the ____ between children, the ____ the children’s ____.
Small; Multiple Factors; Family Size; Spacing; Larger the Family; Smaller the Gap; Lower; Achievement
____ and ____ ____: ____ ____ increases children’s risk for emotional and behavioral problems, although the exact nature and severity of the problems depend on several factors including the child’s genetic predisposition, the presence of other risk factors, and the nature of the mother’s symptoms. Regarding the latter, the studies have found that mothers who report ____ ____ of depression tend to be less Positive, sensitive, and engaged with their infants than are mothers with ____ -____ or ____ ____ and that these parenting behaviors are associated with poorer child outcomes.
Maternal and Paternal Depression; Maternal Depression; Chronic Symptoms; Short-Term or Intermittent Symptoms
There is evidence that ____ ____ of ____ in children associated with maternal depression (e.g., elevated heart rate, 4-eater right frontal lobe asymmetry) are apparent by the time the child is ____ ____ of ____.
Physiological Signs of Distress; Three Months of Age
Studies of toddlers have linked maternal depression (especially chronic, severe depression) to ____ ____; higher-than-normal rates of ____ when interacting with ____; and poorer performance on measures of ____ -____ ____. The research has also found maternal depression to be associated with ____ ____ in infants and preschoolers.
Passive Noncompliance; Aggressiveness; Peers; Cognitive-Linguistic Functioning; Insecure Attachment
Finally, paternal depression has also been linked to certain ____ -____ ____ and ____ ____. Based on their meta-analysis of 32 studies, Kane and Garber (2004) concluded that depression in fathers is related to frequent ____ -____ ____ and to ____ and ____ ____ in children.
Parent-Child Interactions and Child Outcomes; Father-Child Conflict; Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms
Ramchandani et al. (2005) found that paternal postnatal depression predicted ____ and ____ ____ in children at age three (especially in boys), even when mothers had ____ symptoms of depression.
Social and Behavioral Problems; No
____-____, or the understanding that one is separate from others, becomes apparent during the second year of life. According to Stipek and colleagues (1990), the development of self-awareness involves three stages.
Self-Awareness
____ ____ -____ is evident by about 18 months of age when infants begin to recognize themselves in pictures and mirrors. According to Gergely, this ____ ____ requires certain ____ ____, including the ability to construct “a visual feature representation of the typical physical appearance of not-directly visible parts of Ione’s own] body.”
Physical Self-Recognition; Mirror Recognition; Cognitive Skills
____ -____ emerges between 19 and 30 months of age, when children use both ____ terms (e.g., “brown hair”) and ____ terms (e.g., “good girl”) to describe themselves.
Self-Description; Neutral; Evaluate
Children subsequently exhibit ____ ____ to ____, which means that they have adverse reactions to a caregiver’s disapproval. Stipek et al. conclude this reaction signals the beginning of the development of a ____ of ____.
Emotional Responses to Wrongdoing; Sense of Conscience
Self-awareness undergoes predictable changes during childhood and adolescence, and these changes are reflected in how youngsters ____ ____: From ages 2 to 6, self-descriptions focus on ____ ____ ____, ____ ____, and ____ (e.g., “I’m a girl,” “I like to ride my bike”). In middle-childhood (ages 6 to 10), children’s self-descriptions often refer to ____ (e.g., “I’m a very good soccer player but I’m not very good at math”); and toward the end of middle childhood (ages 10 to 12), youngsters often describe themselves in terms ____ ____ (“I’m popular,“ “I’m shy”) and ____ ____ ____ ____ (e.g., “I’d be ashamed of myself if I failed the test”).
Describe Themselves; Concrete Physical Characteristics, Specific Behaviors, and Preferences; Competencies; Personality Traits; Emotions Directed Toward Themselves
Adolescents describe themselves more ____, using terms that refer to their ____ ____ and ____ (e.g., “I’m moody, sensitive, and a total introvert”), and they recognize that their attributes are sometimes ____ (“I’m usually sensitive about other people’s feelings, but sometimes I say horrible things to my friends and family members”).
Abstractly; Inner Thoughts and Feelings; Inconsistent
Gender Identity: ____ ____ refers to a person’s sense of being a ____ or ____. The studies have found that gender identity is well-established by the age of ____: Most three-year-olds label themselves as either a ____ or a ____, classify others as being of the ____ or ____ ____, and know what behaviors are considered ____ and ____ for a boy or girl.
Gender Identity; Male or Female; Three; Boy or Girl; Same or Opposite Sex; Appropriate and Inappropriate
_________: Theories and models of gender identity include 5 theories.
Explanations of Gender Identity
According to Freud’s ____ ____, the development of gender identity depends on successful resolution of the psychosexual crisis of the phallic stage of development, which results in identification with the same-sex parent.
Psychodynamic Theory
Cognitive Development Theory: According to ____ (1966) ____ ____ ____, the acquisition of gender identity involves a sequence of stages that parallels cognitive development: By age two or three, children recognize that they are either male or female (____ ____). Soon thereafter, children realize that gender identity is stable over time (____ ____) — i.e., that boys grow up to be men and girls grow up to be women. Finally, by age six or seven, children understand that gender is constant over situations and know that people cannot change gender by superficially altering their external appearance or behavior (____ ____).
Kohlberg’s Cognitive Development Theory; Gender Identity; Gender Stability; Gender Constancy
____ ____ ____ predicts that the acquisition of a gender identity is the result of a combination of differential reinforcement and observational learning. Support for social learning theory is provided by studies confirming that parents have ____ -____ ____ that impact how they respond to male and female children soon after the child’s birth (Santrock, 2006).
Social Learning Theory; Gender-Related Stereotypes
Smith and Lloyd (1978) asked mothers of first-born six-month olds to play for several minutes with an infant presented to them as either “John” or “Jane.” They found that the mothers chose toys that matched the ____ ____ and responded to the infant’s motor movements with ____ ____ when the infant had been presented as a ____ but with attempts to ____ the ____ when the infant had been presented as a ____.
Infant’s Gender; Motor Behavior; Boy; Calm the Infant; Girl
Karraker, Vogel, and Lake (1995) concluded that gender-related stereotypes have ____ in the past few decades but still ____. In their study, mothers and fathers of newborn girls ____ their children as less strong, more delicate, and more feminine than mothers and fathers of newborn boys; and these differences in perception were apparent within the first ____ ____ following their children’s birth.
Declined; Exist; Described; Few Hours
Gender Schema Theory: ____ (1981) ____ ____ ____ attributes the acquisition of a gender identity to a combination of social learning and cognitive development. According to Bem, children develop “____ “ (conceptual frameworks) of masculinity and femininity as the result of their ____ ____. These schemas then ____ how the individual ____ and ____ about the ____.
Bem’s Gender Schema Theory; Schemas; Sociocultural Experiences; Organize; Perceives and Thinks; World
Multidimensional Model: Egan and Perry’s (2001) ____ ____ views Odet identity AS consisting of five components: (a) ____ ____ (knowledge of one’s membership in a gender category), (b) ____ ____ (the degree to Which one feels Similar to others in one’s gender category), (c) ____ ____ (the degree to which one is satisfied with one’s gender), (d) ____ ____ for ____ ____ (the degree to which one feels pressure from parents. peers, And others to conform to gender stereotypes), and (e) ____ ____ (the extent to which one believes that one’s gender category is superior to the other category). Their model also predicts that a person’s psychosocial adjustment is related to his or her status on these ____.
Multidimensional Model; Membership Knowledge; Gender Contentedness; Felt Pressure for Gender Conformity; Intergroup Bias; Components
____ ____ ____: Research has linked gender identity to several outcomes. For example, research by Hall and Halberstadt (1980) found that gender identity had a greater impact than biological sex on ____ -____. Their results indicated that, for both males and females, ____ (which combines masculine and feminine characteristics and preferences) and, to a lesser degree, ____ was associated with ____ ____ of ____ -____ than was ____.
Gender Identity Outcomes; Self-Esteem; Androgyny; Masculinity; Higher Levels of Self-Esteem; Femininity
The benefits of ____ have been confirmed by subsequent studies that have linked it to a number of ____ ____ including ____ ____ when ____ with ____ ____, higher levels of ____ ____, and greater comfort with ____ ____.
Androgyny; Positive Characteristics; Greater Flexibility; Coping with Difficult Situations; Life Satisfaction; One’s Sexuality
____ ____ in ____: The studies have found that, while there may be some decline in ____ -____ ____ in late adolescence and early adulthood, the distinction often reappears when ____ ____. Even among “____ “ and ____ -____ ____, the gender gap often widens when the ____ ____ is ____, and the woman assumes ____ ____ for child rearing and housekeeping.
Gender Roles in Adulthood; Gender-Role Differences; Adults Marry; Liberated and Dual-Earner Couples; First Child is Born; Primary Responsibility
Beginning in middle-age, there may be some degree of ____ -____ ____, with men becoming more passive, expressive, sensitive, and dependent and women becoming more active, outgoing, independent, and competitive.
Gender-Role Reversal
____ and ____ ____: Initial steps in adopting a ____ /____ ____ are recognizing the existence of ____ ____ and understanding the concept of ____. Some studies suggest that infants may exhibit awareness of ____ ____ as early as six months of age and that children are able to label people in terms of ____ ____ by the time they are three to four years old.
Race and Racial Preference; Racial/Ethnic Identity; Racial Differences; Race; Racial Differences; Racial Group
A more sophisticated understanding of race does not develop until about age 10 when children begin to understand the ____ ____ of ____ ____.
Social Connotations of Racial Differences
The earliest studies on racial preferences were conducted by Clark and Clark (1947) for the purpose of identifying the effects of ____ on children’s ____ ____. The results of their studies indicated that young Black children preferred a ____ (versus Black) doll, and they concluded that these findings demonstrated that Black children had a ____ ____ -____. Their results were subsequently used to support the integration of schools in the ____ v. ____ of ____ ____ ____ ____.
Segregation; Racial Identity; White; Negative Self-Image; Integration of Schoos; Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court Decision
Unfortunately, there is evidence of a continuing ____ in the ____ ____ of White and Black children. For example, Katz (2003) found that the preference for ____ -____ ____ increases from ages three to six for white children but decreases during this period for Black children.
Discrepancy; Racial Preferences; Same-Race Peers
____ ____ ____: Erikson introduced the term “____ ____ “ and considered primary developmental task of adolescence to be the ____ of a ____ ____ Erikson’s view was expanded by Marcia (1987), who distinguished between four ____ ____ (patterns) that reflect the degree to which the individual has experienced (or is experiencing) an identity crisis and is committed to an identity.
Adolescent Identity Crisis; Identity Crisis; Achievement of a Coherent Identity; Identity Statuses
____ ____: Adolescents exhibiting ____ have not yet experienced an identity crisis or explored alternatives and are not committed to an identity.
Identity Diffusion; Diffusion
____ ____: Adolescents are manifesting ____ when they have not experienced a crisis but have adopted an identity (occupation, ideolog, etc.) that has been imposed by the same-sex parent or other person.
Identity Foreclosure; Foreclosure
____ ____: Identity ____ occurs when an adolescent experiences an identity crisis and actively explores alternative identities. It is during this period that teens exhibit a high degree of confusion, discontent, and rebelliousness.
Identity Moratorium; Moratorium
____ ____: Adolescents who have resolved the identity crisis by evaluating alternatives and committing to an identity are “____ ____.”
Identity Achievements; Identity Achieved
The view of adolescence as a period of ____ can be traced to Hall who, in 1904, proclaimed that adolescence is a time of “____ and ____ “ involving ____ ____ and ____. Subsequent research has not ____ ____ Hall’s conclusion: Only a small proportion of adolescents experience ____ ____, and the rates of serious psychological disturbance among teens are not ____ ____ from those for younger children and adults.
Crisis; Storm and Stress; Emotional Maladjustment and Instability; Totally Supported; Significant Distress; Very Different
____ ____ ____: Gilligan found that, at about 11 or 12 years of age, 4rls experience a ____ ____ in response to increasing pressure to fit cultural stereotypes about the “____ ____ ____.” As a result, they ____ from ____ to maintain ____ with ____. For example, adolescent girls experience a “____ of ____ “ when they realize that women’s opinions are not ____ ____.
Gilligan’s Relational Crisis; Relational Crisis; Perfect Good Woman; Disconnect from Themselves; Relationships with Others; Loss of Voice; Highly Valued
Consequences of this relational crisis include a drop in ____ ____, a loss of ____ -____, and an increased vulnerability to ____ ____. Gilligan concludes that a primary task for parents, teachers, and therapists is to help adolescent girls maintain a “____ ____ to ____.” (Note that Gilligan proposes that ____ experience a similar ____ ____ but do so in early childhood rather than in adolescence.)
Academic Achievement; Self-Esteem; Psychological Problems; Healthy Resistance to Disconnection; Males; Relational Crisis
Research investigating the ____ of ____ traits during ____ has produced ____ ____, but this may be due, in part, to differences in how ____ is measured. Specifically, studies examining the ____ ____ (ranking) of personality traits within individuals tend to find considerable ____ in ____, especially after age 30. In contrast, studies examining ____ ____ in the ____ of ____ ____ at different ages suggest some ____.
Consistency of Personality; Adulthood; Conflicting Results; Consistency; Relative Strength; Stability in Personality; Mean Differences; Strength of Personality Traits; Variability
Roberts, Walton, and Viechtbauer’s (2006) meta-analysis of the longitudinal studies on mean-level changes in personality traits found that the greatest change in traits occurs during ____ ____ but that agreeableness, social dominance (one facet of extraversion), conscientiousness, and emotional stability continue to ____ over the ____ and that ____ ____ (another facet Of extraversion) and ____ to ____ are fairly ____ from early to middle adulthood but ____ after age 55.
Young Adulthood; Increase; Lifespan; Social Vitality; Openness to Experience; Stable; Decline
____ ____ of ____: Research suggests that children progress through three phases in their understanding of death, with each phase reflecting differences in the understanding of the concepts of ____, ____, and ____.
Children’s Understanding of Death; Nonfunctionality; Irreversibility; Universality
____ is the understanding that life involves thinking, breathing, eating, and other essential functions that cease at death; ____ is the understanding that a living being cannot physically return from death; and ____ is the understanding that all living beings eventually die.
Nonfunctionality; Irreversibility; Universality
Children two to five years of age typically view death as ____ and ____ and perceive death as ____ or ____. Children ages five through nine gradually develop an awareness of the ____ of death but tend to ____ it (e.g., as a skeleton or ghost) and believe they can “____ “ or escape death. By age 10, most children recognize that death involves a ____ of ____ and is ____ and ____.
Reversible and Temporary; Separation or Abandonment; Irreversibly; Personify; Cheat; Cessation of Function; Irreversible and Universal
Note, that there’s evidence that children may develop a ____ ____ of ____ as early as age ____ and that the age at which children do so is affected by several factors including the child’s ____ ____ level, ____ -____ ____, and ____ and ____ ____.
Mature Understanding of Death; Five; Cognitive Developmental Level, Death-Related Experiences, and Cultural and Religious Experiences
____ to ____: ____ ____ ____ is related to both age and personality. Although ____ ____ think about death more often than ____ ones, anxiety about death seems to be greatest among ____ -____ ____. Not Surprisingly, anxiety about death is lower among ____ -____ ____; that is, among people with high ____ -____, a sense of ____, and a sense of ____.
Reaction to Dying; Anxiety About Death; Older Adults; Younger; Middle-Aged People; Better-Adjusted People; Self-Esteem; Mastery; Purpose
Based on interviews with over 200 terminally-ill patients, Kubler-Ross (1969) concluded that people progress through the following five ____ of ____ when facing their own death or other important loss: (a) ____ and ____ (“No, this isn’t happening to me!”), (b) ____ (“why me?”), (c) ____ (“Yes me, but not until my grandchild is born”), (d) ____ (“Yes, me”), and (e) ____ (“My time is close and that’s alright”). Subsequent studies suggest that these stages do not necessarily occur in the ____ ____ by Kubler-Ross and that stages may be ____.
Stages of Grief; Denial and Isolation; Anger; Bargaining; Depression; Acceptance; The Order Described; Repeated
Research by Kagan and others has confirmed that the temperament trait of behavioral (1) ____ has a genetic component, is relatively stable, and is associated with certain physiological reactions. According to Thomas and Chess’s (2) ____ adjustment is related to the degree to which the parents’ behaviors match model, the child’s temperament.
(1) inhibition; (2) goodness-of-fit
During each of Freud’s five psychosexual stages of development, the (3) ____ centered in a different part of the body. For example, during the (4) ____ stage, the mouth is the focus of sensation and stimulation, and weaning is the primary source of conflict. Erikson’s theory posits eight stages of psychosocial development that encompass the lifespan.
(3) libido; (4) oral
The first stage (infancy) involves a conflict between (5) ____ the second stage (toddlerhood) is characterized by a crisis involving (6) ____ and the primary crisis of adolescence is a conflict between (7) ____. Finally, a successful outcome of the last stage of life (ego integrity vs. despair) is characterized by the development of (8) ____ and a sense of integrity.
(5) basic trust vs. basic mistrust; (6) autonomy vs. shame and doubt; (7) identity vs. role confusion; (8) wisdom
Levinson’s developmental theory (“seasons of a man’s life”) emphasizes the (9) ____ from one period to the next. In midlife there is a deflation of The Dream and a shift in perspective from time-since-birth to (10) ____.
(9) transition; (10) time-left-to-live
Baumrind and colleagues distinguish between four parenting styles: Authoritarian parents exhibit a high degree of demandingness and low (11) ____. Their children are often irritable and have low self-esteem and low (12) ____. (13) ____ parents combine rational control with responsivity and encouragement of independence. Children of these parents are assertive, self-confident, and (14) ____ -oriented and obtain high grades in school.
(11) responsivity; (12) academic achievement; (13) Authoritative; (14) achievement
(15) ____ parents are warm and caring but make few demands and are nonpunitive, while (16) ____ parents exhibit low levels of both responsivity and demandingness. The research has found that adolescent delinquency is associated with a lack of parental warmth, a lack of (17) ____ and inconsistent or harsh discipline. Maternal depression increases a child’s risk for emotional and behavioral problems and is associated with (18) ____ attachment in infants and preschoolers.
(15) Permissive; (16) rejecting-neglecting; (17) supervision; (18) insecure
From ages 2 to 6, self-descriptions focus on concrete physical characteristics, (19) ____ and preferences; and, in middle-childhood (ages 6 to 10), children’s self-descriptions often refer to their (20) ____. Kohlberg’s cognitive-developmental theory proposes that gender identity development entails a predictable sequence of stages — i.e., gender identity, gender stability, and gender (21) ____.
(19) specific behaviors; (20) competencies; (21) constancy
According to Bem’s (22) ____ theory, children develop conceptual frameworks about what is expected of them as girls or boys and then apply those frameworks to their own behavior. Some research suggests that, for both males and females, (23) ____ and, to a lesser degree, masculinity is associated with higher levels of self-esteem than is femininity.
(22) gender schema; (23) androgyny
Erikson proposed that the primary developmental task of adolescence is the achievement of a coherent (24) ____. According involves four stages (statuses) — diffusion, foreclosure, (25) ____, and achievement. Gilligan argues that, in early adolescence, girls experience a (26) ____ as the result of increasing pressure to conform to cultural stereotypes about the “perfect good woman.”
(24) identity; (25) moratorium; (26) relational crisis
Most children do not understand that death is universal and irreversible and involves cessation of biological functioning until about age (27) ____. Among adults, anxiety about death is generally greatest in (28) ____. Kubler-Ross described a person’s reaction to facing his or her own death in terms of five stages: denial, anger, (29) ____ depression, and acceptance.
(27) 10; (28) middle-age; (29) bargaining
