Language Development

Question 1

The primary explanations for language development are provided by the ____, ____, and ____ approaches. The ____ ____ attributes language acquisition to biological mechanisms and stresses ____ ____ of ____ ____.

Answer 1

Nativist, Behaviorist, and Interactionist; Nativist Approach; Universal Patterns of Language Development

Question 2

____ (1968), an advocate of this position, proposes that an ____ ____ ____ ____ (___) makes it possible for a person to acquire language just by being exposed to it. Support for this proposal comes from studies showing that children master the basics of language between the ages of _ and _ regardless of the complexity of their native language and that children from all cultures pass through the same stages of language development.

Answer 2

Chomsky; Innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD); 4 and 6; All Cultures

Question 3

In contrast, the ____ ____ proposes that language is acquired like any other behavior through imitation and reinforcement. In other words, children acquire language by ____ and ____ the language of others and being reinforced for doing so.

Answer 3

Behaviorist Approach; Imitation and Reinforcement; Observing and Imitating; Reinforced

Question 4

____ regard language development to be attributable to a combination of biological and environmental factors. The social-communications version of this approach stresses the impact of ____ ____.

Answer 4

Interactionists; Social-Communications

Question 5

In at least some cultures, adults seem to naturally use ____ -____ ____ (which is also known as motherese and parentese) when speaking to very young children: They speak more ____, use ____ and ____ ____, ____ and ____ the most ____ ____, and frequently ____ ____. In addition, adults often respond to a child’s communications with an ____ or ____.

Answer 5

Child-Directed Speech; Slowly; Shorter, Simpler Sentences; Exaggerate; Repeat; Important Words; Ask Questions; Expansion or Extension

Question 6

An adult is responding with an ____ when he or she adds to the child’s statement but retains the child’s word order — e.g., when a child says, “Mommy bye-bye” and her father responds, “Yes, Mommy is going bye-bye.” In contrast, an adult is responding with an ____ when he or she adds information to the child’s statement – e.g., when a child says, “Mommy bye-bye” and her father responds, “Yes, Mommy is going to work now.”

Answer 6

Expansion; Extension

Question 7

Linguists interested in early language development distinguish between several mechanisms that children use to facilitate ____ ____. One of these is ____ ____, refers to a child’s use of his or her knowledge of the meaning of words to infer their syntactical (grammatical) category.

Answer 7

Language Acquisition; Semantic Bootstrapping

Question 8

Through ____ ____, children learn that words that refer to objects or persons are nouns, words that refer to actions are verbs, etc. Acquiring knowledge of the syntactical categories of words allows children to eventually understand ____ ____ and construct ____ ____ ____.

Answer 8

Semantic Bootstrapping; Syntactical Rules; Grammatically Correct Sentences

Question 9

Another mechanism is ____ ____, which refers to a child’s use of syntactical knowledge to learn the meaning of new words (Gleitman, 1990). As an example, a child encountering a new noun in an utterance may begin to infer the noun’s meaning by the grammatical context in which it occurs: If the sentence is “This is a rel,” the child will deduce that “rel” is a kind of object; but if the sentence is “This is rel,” the child will deduce that “rel” is a particular object. . Note that ____ ____ does not explain how children learn the precise meanings of words but only how children ____ the ____ ____ of ____.

Answer 9

Syntactic Bootstrapping; Syntactic Bootstrapping; Narrow the Possible Meanings of Words

Question 10

Several other types of bootstrapping have also been identified as contributors to language development. For example ____ ____ refers to using the prosody (pitch, rhythm, etc.) of an utterance to make inferences about syntax; while ____ ____ refers to using knowledge about morphemes to deduce the syntax or meaning of a word — e.g., deducing that a word is an action word (verb) because it ends in “ing.”

Answer 10

Prosodic Bootstrapping; Morphological Bootstrapping

Question 11

One way to describe language is in terms of its ____: ____ ____ refers to the organization of words, phrases, and sentences, while ____ ____ refers to the underlying meaning of sentences. The difference between the two is most obvious in sentences that are ____. For instance, the sentence “Visiting relatives can be tiresome” has a single surface structure but two deep structures: “relatives who visit can be tiresome” and “going to visit relatives can be tiresome.”

Answer 11

Structure; Surface Structure; Deep Structure; Ambiguous

Question 12

According to Chomsky’s notion of ____ ____, ____ involves transforming deep structure (meaning) into surface structure (grammatical sentences), while ____ entails transforming surface structure into its deep structure.

Answer 12

Transformational Grammar; Speaking; Listening

Question 13

Linguists distinguish between two types of speech sounds. ____ are the smallest units of sound that are understood in a language. The English language has _ ____ — for example, b, p, f, v, and th. ____ are the smallest units of sound that convey meaning.

Answer 13

Phonemes; 45 Phonemes; Morphemes

Question 14

__________ are made up of one or more phonemes. Examples include words like “do” and “go” and prefixes and suffixes such as “un,” “ed,” and “ing.”

Answer 14

Morphemes; Phonemes

Question 15

Children in different cultures progress through similar __________.

Answer 15

stages of language acquisition.

Question 16

Infants initially produce three distinct patterns of crying a ____ (____) ____, an ____ ____, and a ____ ____. By one or two months of age. they also produce a ____ (____) ____.

Answer 16

Crying; Basic (Hunger) Cry; Anger Cry; Pain Cry; Fussy (Irregular) Cry

Question 17

All adults, not just parents, respond with changes in heart rate and skin conductance to an infant’s cries, with the ____ ____ producing the strongest response: and, for mothers of infants the pain cry not only elicits the physiological reaction but is also most likely to cause ____ or ____ and an immediate ____ ____.

Answer 17

Heart Rate; Skin Conductance; Pain Cry; Anxiety or Worry; Behavioral Response

Question 18

Note that the most common (and successful) response of a mother to her infant’s cries is to raise and hold the child ____ on her ____ to provide him or her with ____ ____ ____. There is also evidence that a mother’s ____ and ____ ____ to her infant’s crying during the first few months of the infant’s life is associated with a decrease in the ____ and ____ of ____ in subsequent months as well as with greater reliance on ____, ____ ____, and other types of ____ as a means of ____.

Answer 18

Upright; Shoulder; Close Physical Contact; Prompt and Consistent Response; Frequency and Duration of Crying; Gestures; Facial Expressions; Vocalization; Communication

Question 19

Beginning at six to eight weeks of age, infants produce simple “____” ____ that consist mainly of ___ and that are usually emitted when the infant is ___ and ___. This is followed, at about four months of age, by ____, which involves the repetition of simple consonant and vowel sounds (e.g., “bi-bi-bi”).

Answer 19

Cooing Sounds; Vowels; Happy and Contented; Babbling

Question 20

____ ____ includes sounds from all languages; but, between nine and 14 months of age, babies narrow their repertoire of sounds to those of their ____ ____. Although early studies suggested that ____ ____ begin to babble at about the same age as hearing children, subsequent research found that only deaf children with ____ ____ resemble hearing children in terms of ____ ____.

Answer 20

Early Babbling; Native Language; Deaf Children; Residual Hearing; Early Verbalizations

Question 21

t about the same age at which hearing children begin to babble, deaf children begin to __________.

Answer 21

make repetitive, rhythmic gestures (“babble”) with their hands.

Question 22

Beginning at about nine months of age, children imitate adult speech sounds and words without an understanding of their meaning (____). This is followed by ____ ____, which involves vocalizations that sound like sentences but have no meaning.

Answer 22

Echolalia; Expressive Jargon

Question 23

First Words: In infancy, ____ vocabulary exceeds ____ vocabulary; and, by about 13 months of age, infants understand about _ ____. Most infants speak their first word between the ages of _ and _ ____ and, by 18 months, speak about _ ____.

Answer 23

Receptive; Productive; 50 Words; 10 and 15 Months; 50 Words

Question 24

_____ ____ are most often ____, or ____ for objects, people, or events, although action words, modifiers, and personal-social words (e.g., please) also occur. ____ are most likely to refer to dynamic objects (dog, car) or objects the child uses (spoon). For many children, the very first word is either “____ “ or “____.”

Answer 24

First Words; Nominals; Labels; Nominals; Mama; Dada

Question 25

From one to two months of age, children use ____ ____ that express ____ ____ and ____. This is referred to as ____ ____ and involves using gestures and intonation to turn a single word into a comment, question, or command.

Answer 25

Single Words; Whole Phrases and Sentences; Holophrastic Speech

Question 26

By 18 to 24 months of age, children exhibit ____ ____ – i.e., they string two or more words together to make a sentence (e.g., “me go,” “more juice”). While these phrases initially contain only ____, ____, and ____, by 27 months, ____ and ____ have been added. At this point, the child’s vocabulary contains about _ to _ ____.

Answer 26

Telegraphic Speech; Nouns, Verbs, and Adjectives; Prepositions and Pronouns; 300 to 400 Words

Question 27

____ ____: At about 18 months of age, children begin to exhibit a rapid increase in vocabulary. with the fastest ____ of ____ occurring between 30 and 36 months. At 36 months, the child’s vocabulary includes about _ ____, and their sentences often contain ___ or ___ ____.

Answer 27

Vocabulary Growth; Rate of Growth; 1,000 Words; Three or Four Words

Question 28

____ ____ ____: The period from 2-1/2 to 5yYears of age is marked by increasing sentence ____, ____ ____, and continued ____ ____, with about _ ____ ____ being acquired each month. The child also increasingly uses ____, ____, and the ____ ____. A temporary overgeneralization of ____ ____ is common during this period.

Answer 28

Grammatically Correct Sentences; Complexity; Grammatical Accuracy; Vocabulary Growth; 50 New Words; Each Month; Questions; Negatives; Passive Voice; of Grammatical Rules

Question 29

During the early school years, children gain ____ ____, or the ability to reflect on language as a ____ ____ and on themselves as ____ ____. By age 6 or 7, for example, children recognize that words are different from the concepts they represent, and they can use words in ____ and ____ ____.

Answer 29

Metalinguistic Awareness; Communication Tool; Language Users; Humorous and Metaphoric Ways

Question 30

During language development, children exhibit several errors including _______.

Answer 30

underextension, overextension, and overregularization.

Question 31

____ occurs when a child applies a word too narrowly to objects or situations. For instance, a young child might use the word “dish” to refer only to the plastic dish that he normally uses. In contrast, ____ occurs when a child applies a word to a wider collection of objects or events than is appropriate.

Answer 31

Underextension; Overextension

Question 32

A child is exhibiting overextension when she refers to all four-legged animals as “dogie.” Finally, as children begin to master grammatical rules, they often exhibit ____, which occurs when the child applies usual rules to exceptional cases. For example, a young child may say “tooths” instead of “teeth” and “holded” instead of “held.”

Answer 32

Overregularization

Question 33

The research has identified several gender differences in language style. For example, during childhood, the language of boys and girls reflects their ____ ____: Boys rely more on language strategies that establish ____, ____ ____, and involve ____ ____, while girls are more likely to use language in ways that provide ____ and demonstrate ____.

Answer 33

Preferred Interactions; Dominance; Gain Attention; Giving Orders; Support; Attentiveness

Question 34

In conversations, males talk for ____ ____ than females do and are more likely to ____ when someone else is talking, while females are more likely to ____ ____ and attach “tag questions” to their statements (e.g., “You’re going to the meeting on Wednesday, aren’t you?”).

Answer 34

Longer Intervals; Interrupt; Ask Questions

Question 35

____-____ ____: The research has confirmed that acquiring a second language is more difficult for adolescents and adults than it is for children. While there is evidence that adolescents and adults initially make faster progress in acquiring a second language (especially regarding syntax and vocabulary). the long-term outcomes are generally better when second-language learning begins in ____.

Answer 35

Second-Language Acquisition; Childhood

Question 36

Johnson and Newport (1991) found that, for their sample of Korean and Chinese adults who immigrated to the United States at different ages, those who began learning English between the ages of ___ and ___ not only obtained higher scores on a measure of ____ ____ than those who arrived and began learning English later but also obtained scores that were similar to those received by ____ ____.

Answer 36

Three and Seven; English Grammar; Native Speakers

Question 37

The studies have also found that individuals exposed to second language during childhood are more likely to speak the language with a ____ ____. Some authors note, however, that there is considerable variability in the ability of adults to acquire a second language and conclude that, with sufficient ____ and ____, some adults do become ____ ____ of that language.

Answer 37

Native Accent; Practice and Motivation; Proficient Speakers

Question 38

The results of several early studies implied that ____ leads to cognitive deficits, but subsequent, better-controlled research found that bilingual children do as well as, or even better than, monolingual children on tests measuring ____ and ____ ____.

Answer 38

Bilingualism; Language and Cognitive Skills

Question 39

While bilingual children may initially have ____ ____ in each language than monolingual children have in their language, the ____ ____ of bilingual children is similar to or larger than the vocabulary of their monolingual peers.

Answer 39

Smaller Vocabularies; Total Vocabulary; Monolingual

Question 40

Bilingual children tend to score higher than monolinguals on measures of _______________________.

Answer 40

cognitive flexibility, cognitive complexity, analytical reasoning, working memory capacity, attentional control, and metalinguistic awareness.

Question 41

Research investigating the permanency of these cognitive benefits has provided ____ ____, with some studies indicating that bilingual individuals maintain the benefits into adulthood and others finding that, by adolescence, bilingual and monolingual speakers are Indistinguishable in terms of these benefits.

Answer 41

Inconsistent Results

Question 42

____ ____ involves initially teaching non-English-speaking children in their native language and slowly teaching them English.

Answer 42

Bilingual Education

Question 43

Research on bilingual education has produced ____ ____ partly because the existing programs ____ ____ in ____ and ____. Probably the best overall conclusion that can be drawn is that, when language-minority children participate in high-quality bilingual programs they acquire academic English and knowledge of subject matter ____ ____ ____ or ____ ____ those who participate in ____ (English-only) ____.

Answer 43

Inconsistent Results; Vary Considerably in Approach and Quality; As Well As or Better Than; Immersion Programs

Question 44

____ -____ is common among bilinguals, involves alternating between languages during a conversation, and appears to serve several functions. For example, a bilingual speaker may switch from English to his or her native language to better ____ themself, ____ ____ with the listener, or more effectively express their ____ ____ the ____.

Answer 44

Code-Switching; Express; Establish Rapport; Attitude Toward the Listener

Question 45

The nativist approach attributes language acquisition to (I) ____ mechanisms. For example, Chomsky proposes the existence of an innate (2) ____ that makes it possible for a person to acquire language after being exposed to it. In contrast, the (3) ____ approach views language development as being due to a combination of biological and environmental factors.

Answer 45

(l) biological; (2) language acquisition device (LAD): (3) interactionist

Question 46

(4) ____ bootstrapping refers to a child’s use of their knowledge of the meaning of words to infer their grammatical structure. Linguists distinguish between two types of speech sounds: (5) ____ are the smallest units of sound understood in a language, while (6) ____ are the smallest units of sound that convey meaning.

Answer 46

(4) Semantic; (5) Phonemes

Question 47

Infants initially produce three distinct patterns of crying: a hunger cry, an angry cry, and a (7) ____ cry. By four months of age, infants begin babbling, which involves the repetition of single (8) ____ sounds. At about (9) ____ months of age, children narrow these sounds to those of their native language. From one to two years of age, children use one word to express whole phrases or sentences.

Answer 47

(7) pain; (8) consonant-vowel; (9) 9 to 14

Question 48

This (10) ____ speech is followed by telegraphic speech, which emerges at about (11) ____ months of age and involves stringing two or more words together to make a (12) ____. Children usually exhibit a number of errors during the course of language development. For example, (13) ____ occurs when a child applies a word to a wider collection of objects or events than is appropriate.

Answer 48

; (10) holophrastic; (l l) 18 to 24; (12) sentence; (13) overextension

Question 49

Research has identified several consistent gender differences in language use: In conversations, males talk for longer intervals and are more likely to (14) ____, while females are more likely to (15) ____ There is evidence that learning a second-language is best when it begins in (16) ____. Overall, studies on bilingual education suggest that language-minority children who participate in high-quality programs do (17) ____ those who participate in English-only programs in terms of English skills and knowledge of subject matter.

Answer 49

(14) interrupt; (15) ask questions (and add tag questions to statements); (16) childhood; (17) as well as or better