Memory and Forgetting

Question 1

Researchers interested in memory describe it as involving three processes –

Answer 1

Encoding; Storage; Retrieval

Question 2

a) ____ is the translation of incoming stimuli into a code that can be processed by the brain. Although encoding is often ____, it is more effective when it involves ____ ____.

Answer 2

Encoding; Automatic; Deliberate Rehearsal

Question 3

b) ____ is the process of maintaining information in memory. Storage can be disrupted by several factors including ____ and ____ ____ and ____ ____.

Answer 3

Storage; Retroactive and Proactive Interference; Brain Trauma

Question 4

c) ____ refers to the recovery of stored information. Retrieval is facilitated by the used of ____ ____.

Answer 4

Retrieval; Retrieval Cues

Question 5

Models of Memory: The ____-____ and ____-of-____ ____ are two of the models that attempt to explain “____ ____ ____.”

Answer 5

Information-Processing and Levels-of-Processing Models; How Memory Works

Question 6

The ____-____ ____ describes memory as consisting of three components – ¬¬¬__________________.

Answer 6

Information-Processing (Multi-Score) Model; sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

Question 7

is also known as sensory register and provides brief storage of sensory stimuli.

Answer 7

Sensory Memory

Question 8

Although sensory memory seems to be capable of storing a ____ ____ of ____, it is retained for not more than a ____ ____. There may be separate sensory memories, one for ____ of the ____. The sensory store for auditory information is called the “____ ____,” while the store for visual stimuli is referred to as “____ ____.”

Answer 8

Great Deal of Information; Few Seconds; Each of the Senses; Echoic Store; Iconic Store

Question 9

When information in sensory memory becomes the focus of attention, it is transferred to ____-____ ____.

Answer 9

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Question 10

STM holds a ____ ____ of ____, and without ____, information in STM begins to ____ ____ _ ____. Encoding in STM is believed to be primarily ____ but may also be, to a lesser degree, ____, ____, and/or ____. STM consists of ____ ____ (____ ____ ____) and ____ ____.

Answer 10

Limited Amount of Information; Rehearsal; Fade within 30 Seconds; Acoustic; Semantic, Visual, and/or Kinesthetic; Primary Memory (Passive Memory Storage) and Working Memory

Question 11

Regarding primary memory, Miller (1956) proposed that the average capacity of short-term memory is between _ and _ (7 ± 2) distinct units and that the ability to hold larger amounts of information in STM is due to the ____ (____) of related items of information. To remember a string of 21 members, for instance, you might chunk the numbers into groups of three, resulting in seven distinct units of information. ____ ____ is responsible for the manipulation and processing of information. For instance, it is working memory that allows you to repeat the phone number you just found in the phone book until you dial the number on the phone.

Answer 11

5 and 9; Chunking (Grouping); Working Memory

Question 12

Although the process involved in converting information from STM to ____-____ ____ is not well understood, it’s likely due to the type of ____.

Answer 12

Long-Term Memory (LTM); Rehearsal

Question 13

Information is more likely to be transferred to LTM with ____ ____, which involves relating new information to existing information, than with ____ ____, which involves simple repeating the information with little or no processing.

Answer 13

Elaborative Rehearsal; Maintenance Rehearsal

Question 14

Encoding in LTM is largely ____, although some information may be encoded ____ or ____. The capacity of LTM seems to be ____, and some experts believe that material stored in LTM is ____. LTM consists of ____ (____) ____ and ____ ____.

Answer 14

Semantic; Visually or Acoustically; Unlimited; Permanent; Recent (Secondary) Memory and Remote Memory

Question 15

The existence of separate short- and long-term stores is supported by studies of the ____ ____ ____. These studies have shown that, when people are asked to recall a list of items immediately after reading the list, the items in the ____ and ____ of the ____ are recalled much better than those in the ____. Apparently, the “____ ____” occurs because words at the beginning of the list have already been rehearsed and are stored in long-term memory, while the “____ ____” occurs because items at the end of the list are still in short-term memory.

Answer 15

Serial Position Effect; Beginning and End of the List; Middle; Primacy Effect; Recency Effect

Question 16

When there is a brief time delay between reading the list and recalling it, there is only a ____ ____, and this is apparently due to the fact that items at the end of the list are no longer in ____-____ ____.

Answer 16

Primacy Effect; Short-Term Memory

Question 17

The ____-___-____ ____ is an alternative to the information-processing model. It proposes that differences in memory are due to differences in depth of processing rather than to separate memory stores and distinguishes between three levels of processing: ____, ____, and ____.

Answer 17

Levels-of-Processing Model; Structural, Phonemic, and Semantic

Question 18

When trying to memorize a word, you can focus either on its structural or physical properties (Is the word in capital letters?); on its phonemic or sound properties (What does this word rhyme with?); or on its meaning. The later represents the ____ ____, which is the deepest level of processing and produces the greatest amount of recall.

Answer 18

Semantic Level

Question 19

LTM is conceptualized as consisting of ____ and ____ components. ____ ____ stores information about how to do things (“learning how”) and is used to acquire, retain, and employ perceptual, cognitive, and motor skills and habits.

Answer 19

Procedural and Declarative; Procedural Memory

Question 20

____ ____ mediates the acquisition of facts and other information (“learning that or what”) and is further subdivided into semantic and episodic memory.

Answer 20

Declarative Memory

Question 21

____ ____ includes general knowledge that is independent of any context and is responsible for the storage of facts, rules, and concepts, while ____ (____) ____ consists of information about events that have been personally experienced.

Answer 21

Semantic Memory; Episodic (Autobiographical) Memory

Question 22

____ ____ (vivid, detailed images of what one was doing at the time a dramatic event occurred) are stored in ____ ____. Episodic memory is affected more by ____ ____ than are semantic and procedural memory.

Answer 22

Flashbulb Memories; Episodic Memory; Normal Aging

Question 23

Some investigators also distinguish between ____ and ____ aspects of LTM, which roughly correspond to procedural and declarative memory. ____ ____ is automatic, while ____ ____ requires conscious recollection.

Answer 23

Implicit and Explicit; Implicit Memory; Explicit Memory

Question 24

The division of memory into ____/____ and ____/____ is supported by research showing that implicit and explicit memory involve different ____ ____: The _____ and _____ ____ seem to mediate explicit memory, while the ____ ____ and ____ are important for implicit memory.

Answer 24

Implicit/Procedural; Explicit/Declarative; Brain Structures; Hippocampus and Frontal Lobes; Basal Ganglia and Cerebellum

Question 25

Some investigators identify ____ ____ as another component of LTM that is responsible for the capacity to remember to do things in the future (to “remember to remember”).

Answer 25

Prospective Memory

Question 26

Research investigating the effects of aging on prospective memory has found that while older adults often ____ ____ ____ than younger adults on measures of prospective memory under ____ ____, in ____ ____, they often ____ ____, apparently because they’re more likely to make use of ____ ____ such as lists and calendars.

Answer 26

Do Less Well; Controlled Condition; Naturalistic Setting; Do Better; External Aides

Question 27

The research has confirmed a strong relationship between ____ and ____. For example, the studies have found that the ability to ____ ____ in the presence of ____ accounts for the difference between individuals with good versus poor ____ ____. The relationship between attention and memory is addressed in the ___________________________.

Answer 27

Attention and Memory; Maintain Attention; Distraction; Working Memory; Multi-Component Model, Filter Theory, and Feature-Integration Theory

Question 28

According to Baddeley’s ____-____ ____, working memory consists of a central executive and three subsystems – the ____ ____, the ____-____ ____, and the ____ ____.

Answer 28

Muti-Component Model; Phonological Loop; Visuo-Special Sketchpad; Episodic Buffer

Question 29

The ____ ____ is the primary component of working memory and is described by Baddeley as an “____ ____ ____.” It’s responsible for directing attention to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information, and coordinating the three subsystems.

Answer 29

Central Executive; Attentional Control System

Question 30

The ____ ____ and ____-____ ____ are responsible for temporarily storing auditory-verbal and vidual-spatial information, respectively; while the ____ ____ temporarily integrates auditory, visual and spatial information.

Answer 30

Phonological Loop; Visuo-Special Sketchpad; Episodic Buffer

Question 31

Tasks that depend on the central executive are the ones that are most adversely affected by ____ ____. For example, Baddeley (1986) notes that the forward digit span task relies primarily on the phonological loop and is relatively unaffected by increasing age, while the backward digit span task depends on the phonological loop and the central executive and shows greater age-related decline.

Answer 31

Increasing Age

Question 32

Broadbent’s (1958) ____ ____ of ____ ____ was the first of the “bottleneck” theories of attention. It’s based on the information-processing model and explains how information is transferred from ____ ____ to ____-____ ____.

Answer 32

Filter Theory of Selective Attention; Sensory Memory to Short-Term Memory

Question 33

According to the Filter Theory, a) two sensory stimuli presented at the same time are maintained for a ____ ____ in ____ ____; b) a filter selects one of the stimuli to pass through a ____ ____ ____ based on its ____ ____ while the other stimulus is held in a ____ ____ for later processing; and c) the stimulus that passes through the channel to short-term memory is ____ for ____ and comes into ____ ____. The purpose of the filter is to prevent ____ of the capacity of short-term memory.

Answer 33

Brief Period in Sensory Register; Limited Sensory Channel; Physical Characteristics; Temporary Buffer; Processed for Meaning; Conscious Awareness; Overloading

Question 34

Original support for Broadbent’s theory was provided by his ____ (____-____) ____ ____ in which participants were asked to listen to speech sounds presented to each ear simultaneously. For example, the digits “7-4-3” were presented to each participant’s right ear and “8-2-6” to the left ear at the same time. In this situation, participants were most likely to recall the digits as “743-826,” which Broadbent interpreted as indicating that the brain ______________________________ (in this case, the location of the sound).

Answer 34

Dichotic (Split-Span) Listening Task; Receives and Processes Incoming Information Based on its Physical Characteristic

Question 35

According to Treisman and Gelade’s (1980) ____-____ ____, the initial processing of visual information involves two stages: During the ____ ____ ____, the basic features of the object (size, color, orientation) are perceived in parallel at an automatic or subconscious level. Then during the ____ ____, the features are processed serially to form a coherent whole, and this binding of features depends on focal attention.

Answer 35

Feature-Integration Theory; Initial Pretensive Stage; Attentive Stage

Question 36

According to Treisman and Gelade, once an object has been ____ ____, it ordinarily continues to be perceived and stored in memory as a ____ ____. However, overtime, “the features may ____ and ‘____ ____’ once more, or perhaps ____ to form ‘____ ____’” as the result of ____ ____ or ____.

Answer 36

Correctly Integrated; Unitary Object; Disintegrate; Free Float; Recombine; Illusory Conjunctions; Memory Decay or Interference

Question 37

The ____ of ____ is affected by several factors including ____, which are cognitive structures or frameworks that influence how new information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Many ____ in ____ are the result of interpreting information through existing schemas that may introduce systematic biases into memory. Giving a story a particular title, which apparently activates a specific schema, has been found to influence how the story is interpreted and later recalled.

Answer 37

Accuracy of Memory; Schemas; Distortions in Memory

Question 38

Memory is also affected by ____. People tend to construct memories by combining elements of ____ ____ with ____ ____, which can cause ____ and ____. Studies on ____ ____ have shown that errors due to construction can be substantial since existing knowledge affects what we pay attention to and remember about an event and what we recall about the event at a later time.

Answer 38

Construction; New Information with Existing Knowledge; Inaccuracies and Distortions; Eyewitness Testimony

Question 39

One of the first significant studies on ____ was conducted by Ebbinghaus (1885). Using himself as the research subject, nonsense syllables as the stimulus material, and the relearning (savings) method as the criterion, Ebbinghaus determined that the ____ ____ of ____ ____ is followed by a ____ “____ ____” in which most forgetting occurs during the ____ ____ to ___ ____ and then ____ ____ ____. Several theories were subsequently formulated to explain forgetting.

Answer 39

Forgetting; Rote Learning of Nonsense Syllables; Predictable “Forgetting Curve”; First Four to Five Days; Gradually Tapers Off

Question 40

According to ____ ____ ____, learning produces a trace, or engram, which is a physiological change in the brain that decays over time as the result of disuse. Although this theory seems to make sense, there are many instances when memories are retained for ____ ____ without ____ ____ or ____ and when an apparently forgotten memory of a previous event is ____ ____.

Answer 40

Trace Decay Theory; Long Periods; Intervening Use or Practice; Suddenly Recalled.

Question 41

Research on forgetting has found that people forgetting less when ____ than when awake for an equal amount of time, which suggests that forgetting is due more to ____ (to events that occur while awake) than to the decay of memory traces over time.

Answer 41

Asleep; Interference

Question 42

____ ____ proposes that forgetting occurs when the ability to recall certain information is affected by information acquired previously or subsequently. Interference is most likely when new and old information are ____; when the task involves ____ (versus recognition); and when the information to be recalled is ____ or ____. There are two types of interference that adversely affect memory - ____ and ____.

Answer 42

Interference Theory; Similar; Recall; Unimportant or Meaningless; Retroactive and Proactive

Question 43

____ ____ occurs when recently learned (new) material interferes with the recall of previously learned (old) material. In an experiment on retroactive interference, participants in the experimental group learn two lists of nonsense syllables (first List A, then List B) and are then asked to recall List A. In contrast, participants in the control group learn List A, then rest or participate in an unrelated activity before recalling List A. In this situation, experimental group participants are likely to recall ____ ____ from List A than are control group participants because, for participants in the experimental group, the learning of new material (List B) ____ with the recall of ____ ____ ____.

Answer 43

Retroactive Interference; Fewer Words; Interfered; Previously Learned Material

Question 44

____ ____ occurs when prior (old) learning interferes with the learning or recall of subsequent (new) material in an experiment on proactive interference, participants in the experimental group learn two lists of nonsense syllables (first List A, then List B) and are then asked to recall List B. In contrast participants in the control group rest of participate in an unrelated activity before learning List B and are then asked to recall List B. In this situation, experimental group participants are likely to recall ____ ____ from List B than are control group participants because, for participants in the experimental group, ____ ____ (List A) interfered with the ability to ____ or ____ new material (List B).

Answer 44

Proactive Interference; Fewer Words; Old Learning; Acquire or Recall

Question 45

____-____ ____: According to this view, forgetting results when cues needed to retrieve information from long-term memory are insufficient or incomplete. The ____-of-the-____ ____ is believed to be due to inadequate retrieval cues.

Answer 45

Cue-Dependent Forgetting; Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

Question 46

The research has confirmed that several factors maximize the ability to ____, ____, and ____ information from memory.

Answer 46

Encode, Store, and Retrieve

Question 47

The ____ ____ ____ proposes that the greater the similarity between the way information is encoded and the cues that are present at the time of recall, the better the recall. This prediction is confirmed by research on ____-____ ____, which has shown that recall of information is sometimes better when the learner is in the same emotional state during learning and recall. It is also supported by differences in the accuracy of ____ and ____: Performance is usually better on measures of ____, apparently because recognition items provide more ____ ____.

Answer 47

Encoding Specify Principle; State-Dependent Learning; Recognition and Recall; Recognition; Retrieval Cues

Question 48

____ ____: As previously mentioned, information is most likely to be transferred from short-term to long-term memory when ______ _______ is employed, i.e., when new information is made more meaningful by relating it to existing knowledge.

Answer 48

Elaborative Rehearsal

Question 49

____ ____ are formal strategies for improving memory and are classified as vidual or verbal. Visual mnemonics make use of visual imagery. For example, the ____ of ____ involves visually associating items to be remembered with a series f places (loci) already in memory. Using this method, a person first forms an image of each item to be remembered and then mentally “walks through” a familiar room, placing the items in visible locations such as in corners and on tables and chairs.

Answer 49

Mnemonic Devices; Method of Loci

Question 50

To recall the items, the person would again mentally walk through the room and look in the corners and on the tables and chairs. The ____ ____ is another imagery technique and is useful for paired associate tasks in which two words must be linked. For instance, to remember the French word for book (livre) a person would create n image of a leaf on a book. The effectiveness of imagery is illustrated by people who can form ____ ____ (visual images of extreme clarity and detail), which allow them to recall events, objects, and information with great accuracy.

Answer 50

Keyword Method; Eidetic Images

Question 51

____ ____ include ____ and ____, which are bot useful for remembering a list of words or phrases. An ____ is a word that’s formed using the first letter of each item in the list. The word “____” is an ____ for the primary symptoms of Acute Stress Disorder (_______________).

Answer 51

Verbal Mnemonics; Acronyms and Acrostics; Acronym; RAID is an Acronym; Re-experiencing, Avoidance, Increased Arousal, and Dissociative Symptoms

Question 52

An ____ is a phrase or rhyme that’s constructed from the first letter of each word that is to be memorized. “____ ____ ____ ____” is an acrostic for Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development (________________).

Answer 52

Acrostic; See Piaget Creep Forward; Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operation, and Formal Operational

Question 53

____: According to the ____-____ ____, ____ ____ of ____ maximize the efficiency of learning and performance, while extremely ____ and _____ ____ are associated with decreased efficiency. Put another way, the relationship between arousal and learning assumes the shape of an ____-__. The relationship between arousal and learning is also affected by ____ ____: Usually, the ____ ____ the ____, the lower the optimal level of arousal.

Answer 53

Arousal; Yerkes-Dodson Law; Moderate Levels of Arousal; Low and High Levels; Inverted-U; Task Difficulty; More Difficult the Task

Question 54

____ ____ is identified as the deepest level of processing by the levels-of-processing model.

Answer 54

Semantic Memory

Question 55

The information processing (multi-store) model divides memory into three components: 1) ____ stores a great deal of information but retains it for a very brief period of time. Information is transferred to STM when it becomes the 2) ____. The capacity of STM is limited but can be expanded by 3) ____ related items of information. The aspect of STM known as 4) ____ is responsible for the manipulation and processing of information. With 5) ____, information is transferred from short-term to long-term memory, especially when it is elaborative. The existence of separate stores is supported by studies on the 6) ____ effect. According to the levels-of-processing model, the 7) ____ level represents the deepest level of processing and produces the greatest amount of recall.

Answer 55

1) Sensory memory; 2) focus on attention; 3) chunking; 4) working memory; 5) rehearsal; 6) serial position; 7) semantic

Question 56

Procedural memory stores information on 8) ____, while declarative memory mediates the acquisition of 9) ____. One aspect of declarative memory, 10) ____ memory, contains common-sense knowledge and knowledge about language and the rules of logic and inference. The other aspect, 11) ____ memory, stores information about personal experiences. 12) ____ memory is sometimes classified as a component of declarative memory and refers to the ability to remember to do things in the future.

Answer 56

8) how to do things; 9) facts and other information; 10) semantic; 11) episodic

Question 57

According to Baddeley’s multi-component model, working memory consists of four components – the 13) ____, which acts as an “attentional control system” and coordinates the phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and 14) ____. Broadbent’s filter theory was the first “bottleneck” theory of attention and explains how information is transferred from 15) ____. The accuracy of memory is affected by existing 16) ____, or cognitive structures that can bias the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Answer 57

13) Prospective; 13) central executive; 14) episodic buffer; 15) sensory memory to STM; 16) schemas

Question 58

Trace decay theory predicts that memories fade over time as the result of 17) ____. In contrast, interference theory proposes that forgetting is due either to 18) ____ interference, which occurs when newly-learned information inhibits previously-learned information disrupts the learning or recall of subsequent material. Research on 20) ____ learning has shown that recall of information is sometimes better when the learner is in the same emotional state during learning and recall.

Answer 58

17) disuse; 18) retroactive; 19) proactive; 20) state-dependent

Question 59

Mnemonic devices are memory strategies and can be either visual or verbal. The 21) ____ involves visually associating items with a series of places already in memory, while 22) ____ mnemonic entails forming a word from the first letters of the words or phrases to be remembered. According to the Yerkes-Dodson Law, 23) ____ levels of arousal maximize the efficiency of learning and performance.

Answer 59

21) method of loci; 22) acronym; 23) moderate