Aggression and Prejudice

Question 1

____ has been defined by Baron and Richardson as “any form of behavior directed toward the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment.” By this definition, then, aggression involves the ____ to ____ ____ who wants to ____ ____. Social psychologists would not consider ____ ____ acts of aggression.

Answer 1

Aggression; Intention to Harm Someone; Avoid Harm; Unintentional Accidents

Question 2

Social-psychological explanations for aggression include the ____-____ ____ and ____ ____ ____.

Answer 2

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis and Social Learning Theory

Question 3

According to the ____-____ ____, aggression is the consequence of frustration, which is produced whenever the attainment of a desired goal is blocked. The purpose of the aggressive behavior is to ____ the ____ ____; if it can’t be eliminated, might be displaced onto another ____. Because a simple causal relationship between frustration and aggression has not always been found, several ____ to the original hypothesis have been proposed.

Answer 3

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis; Eliminate the Frustrating Block; Object; Modifications

Question 4

Berkowitz claims that frustration creates a ____ for ____ (anger arousal), but that the actual expression of aggression requires both ____ ____ and the presence of ____ ____ (aggressive) ____. In one study, Berkowitz and LePage found that participants who had been angered delivered higher levels of electric shock to a confederate in the presence of a weapon than in the presence of a non-threatening object.

Answer 4

Readiness for Aggression; Anger Arousal; Appropriate External Cuse

Question 5

Bandura’s ____ ____ ____ describes aggressive behavior as the result of observational learning. In a typical experiment, Bandura had children observe a model act aggressively toward an inflatable “____” ____. When children were subsequently left alone with the doll, they often displayed aggressive behaviors ____ to those of the ____. Moreover, they were more likely to perform more ____-____ forms of ____. Bandura also found that the imitation of a model is facilitated by certain conditions: A child is more likely to imitate an aggressive model when the model is ____, ____, ____, and/or ____; is of the ____ ____ as the child; and is ____ for acting aggressively.

Answer 5

Social Learning Theory; “Bobo” Doll; Similar; Model; Non-Imitative; Aggression; Powerful, Successful, Liked, and/or Familiar; Same Gender; Rewarded

Question 6

Regarding the latter, in one study, the model received either punishment, a reward, or no consequence after acting aggressively. Initially, children in the reward and no consequence groups were ____ ____ to imitate the model’s behavior than children in the punishment group. However, when children were subsequently offered an ____ for acting group differences ____ (especially among boys), indicating that all children had learned the aggressive behavior by ____ the ____.

Answer 6

More Likely; Incentive; Disappeared; Observing the Model

Question 7

Studies on observational learning have fueled the controversy over the ____ of ____ ____. ____ of ____ ____ argue that it has no effect on viewer behavior or that it has a cathartic effect that actually decreases viewer violence, whereas its ____ maintain that media violence increases by providing viewers with models for aggressive behavior. The research on this issue is most supportive of the ____ — i.e., the majority of studies confirm that viewing violence does ____ ____.

Answer 7

Effects of Media Violence; Defenders of Media Violence; Critics; Critics; Increase Aggressiveness

Question 8

Heusmann et al.’s longitudinal study found that the extent to which children watched violent television shows at age eight predicted their ____ and ____ as ____ even when ____ ____, parent’s ____ ____, and other ____ ____ were ____ ____. There is also evidence that media violence affects ____ as well as ____: Frequent viewing of media violence has been linked to a tendency to judge ____ ____ more positively, a tendency to overestimate the likelihood that one will be a ____ of ____, and greater support for harsher ____ ____ to help reduce ____.

Answer 8

Criminality and Aggressiveness as Adults; Socioeconomic Status; Childrearing Practices; Relevant Variables were Statistically Controlled; Attitudes; Behavior; Aggressive Retaliation; Victim of Violence; Prison Sentences; Crime

Question 9

Research on the ____ of ____ has also generally supported the predictions of social learning theory. These studies have shown that, while exposure to ____ ____ may reduce aggressiveness, exposure to ____ with ____ ____ tends to increase aggressive behaviors toward ____ (especially when it depicts the women as willing participants who enjoy their victimization) as well as increase ____ of ____ ____ and the adoption of ____ ____ toward ____ ____.

Answer 9

Effects of Pornography; Mild Erotica; Pornography with Violent Themes; Women; Acceptance of Rape Myths; Callous Attitudes toward Sexual Violence

Question 10

____: Zimbardo’s ____ ____ proposes that people are more likely to act aggressively or in other antisocial ways when they believe they can act anonymously. For instance, people seem to be more willing to act aggressively when their identities have been ____ or when they are members of a ____. Deindividuation apparently increases aggressiveness by ____ the ____ of ____ ____ ____ such as shame and guilt, fear of evaluation, and feelings of personal responsibility.

Answer 10

Deindividuation; Deindividuation Model; Disguised; Crowd; Reducing the Effects of usual Inhibitory Mechanisms

Question 11

Deindividuation does not always lead to ____ ____; instead, it leads to a greater reliance on ____ ____. If the norms activated during deindividuation are ____, this can actually ____ ____ ____.

Answer 11

Antisocial Behavior; Group Norms; Prosocial; Increase Prosocial Behavior

Question 12

The impact of ____ ____ on aggression was demonstrated in Zimbardo’s ____ ____ in which Stanford University undergraduate volunteers (who had been screened for emotional stability) were randomly assigned to the role of prisoner or prison guard. Prisoners were “arrested” by the Palo Alto police, booked at the police station, and taken to a simulated prison in the basement of one of the University’s buildings. Conditions in the prison were made as ____ as ____: Prisoners and guards were given uniforms, prisoners were placed in sparsely furnished cells, and, although guards were prohibited from using ____ ____, they were allowed to determine most of the ____ ____.

Answer 12

Social Roles; Prison Study; Realistic as Possible; Physical Punishment; Prison Rules

Question 13

Zimbardo intended for the study to continue for 14 days but had to terminate it after only ___ ____ due to the ____ ____ of the ____ of ____ and ____. Guards quickly became ____ and ____: They often required prisoners to perform ____ and ____ ____, ____ ____ prisoners, and refused requests for ____ ____. In response, prisoners began showing signs of ____, ____, ____, and ____.

Answer 13

Six Days; Rapid Deterioration; Behavior of Prisoners and Guards; Hostile and Cruel; Meaningless and Degrading Tasks; Verbally Abused Prisoners; Restroom Privileges; Depression, Anxiety, Helplessness, and Stress

Question 14

____: According to the ____ ____, an act of aggression reduces an individual’s arousal level which then decreases the likelihood that they will act aggressively again in the near future. The research has ____ ____ very supportive of this claim. Instead, the studies have generally found that, when people act toward another person, this ____ their ____ ____ toward the ____ as well as the likelihood that they will ____ ____ again in the near future.

Answer 14

Catharsis; Catharsis Hypothesis; Not Been; Increases their Negative Feelings; Person; Act Aggressively Again; Near Future

Question 15

A ____ of ____ often reduces aggressiveness, especially when it comes from a person with ____ ____ or ____. However, when the threat of retaliation is coupled with ____, the likelihood of aggression ____, although the aggression may be ____ onto a person other than the ____.

Answer 15

Threat of Retaliation; High Status or Power; Provocation; Increases; Displaced; Provocateur

Question 16

According to Berkowitz’s version of the frustration-aggression hypothesis, frustration leads to aggression in the presence of (1) ____. Research on social learning theory found that a child is more likely to imitate an aggressive model when the model is powerful, successful, liked, and/or (2) ____; is of the same gender; and is (3) ____ for acting Overall, studies on media violence that viewing violence (4) ____ viewer aggression.

Answer 16

(1) aggressive cues; (2) familiar; (3) rewarded; (4) increases

Question 17

The research has also shown that exposure to violent pornography increases aggressive behaviors toward women and increases acceptance of (5) ____ and the adoption of callous attitudes toward sexual violence.

Answer 17

(5) rape myths

Question 18

Zimbardo’s (6) ____ model predicts that people are more likely to act when they can act anonymously; and his prison study demonstrated the impact of (7) ____ on aggression and other behaviors. Although opportunities for catharsis do not seem to reduce aggressive behaviors, threats of (8) ____ often do, especially when they come from people who are high in status or power.

Answer 18

(6) deindividuation; (7) social roles; (8) retaliation

Question 19

Attitude toward members of a ____ ____ is conceptualized, like other attitudes, as being comprised of three components. ____, the ____ component, is a negative feeling toward a person based on their group membership. ____, the ____ components, are the beliefs about a person based on their group membership.

Answer 19

Particular Group; Prejudice; Affective; Stereotypes; Cognitive

Question 20

____ is the ____ component that consists of unequal treatment of people based on goup membership or social categorization.

Answer 20

Discrimination; Behavioral

Question 21

Prejudice has been linked to a number of factors including an ____ ____, ____ ____, and ____ ____. ____, the affective component, is a negative feeling toward a person based on their group membership. ____, the cognitive components, are beliefs about a person based on their group membership. ____ is the behavioral component that consists of unequal treatment of people based on their group membership or social categorization.

Answer 21

Authoritarian Personality, Intergroup Conflict, and Group Identity; Prejudice; Stereotypes; Discrimination

Question 22

____ ____: Based on their study of the rise of fascism and anti-semitism during the 1930s, Adorno and his colleagues concluded that political extremism and prejudice are a manifestation of an ____ ____, which is characterized by a high degree of rigidity, cynicism, commitment to conventional values, and intolerance of ambiguity; a willingness to submit to authority; and a tendency to rigidly stereotype members of minority groups.

Answer 22

Authoritarian Personality; Authoritarian Personality

Question 23

____ ____: Sherifs ____ ____ ____ describes prejudice as the result of ____ ____ caused by competition over power and limited resources. From this perspective, prejudice arises when a group’s goals can be achieved only at the ____ of another group’s ____ or ____.

Answer 23

Intergroup Conflict; Realistic Conflict Theory; Intergroup Conflicts; Expense; Needs or Desires

Question 24

____ ____: Tajfel and Turner’s ____ ____ ____ proposes that ____ ____ is an important part of a person’s self-concept and that people are motivated to maintain a positive group identity by viewing their own social group as positive and distinct relative to other groups. Although maintaining a positive ____ ____ has benefits for the ____ and ____ (e.g., by contributing to personal and collective self-esteem), it can also lead to ____ and ____ against members of ____ ____.

Answer 24

Group Identity; Social Identity Theory; Group Identity; Group Identity; Individual and Society; Prejudice and Discrimination; Other Groups

Question 25

____ refers to an extreme form of prejudice that targets members of a particular racial group and has been defined as “the beliefs, attitudes, institutional arrangements, and acts that tend to denigrate individuals or groups because of phenotypic characteristics or ethnic group affiliation.

Answer 25

Racism

Question 26

____ of ____: Several investigators have pointed out that, to understand the effects of racism, it is necessary to recognize that it operates on multiple levels.

Answer 26

Levels of Racism; Multiple Levels

Question 27

____ ____ is expressed in societal beliefs and customs that promote the assumption that the language, traditions, values, and other aspects of one culture are superior to those of other cultures.

Answer 27

Cultural Racism

Question 28

____ ____ is expressed through the policies and practices of institutions (e.g., political, criminal justice, education, and healthcare systems) that consistently promote racial inequalities.

Answer 28

Institutional Racism

Question 29

____ ____ is a manifestation of individual racism and is expressed in interactions between individuals and between groups and includes social exclusion, stigmatization, harassment, and threats.

Answer 29

Interpersonal Racism

Question 30

____ ____ is the “acceptance, by marginalized racial populations, of the negative societal beliefs and stereotypes about themselves.”

Answer 30

Internalized Racism

Question 31

The application of ____ of ____ to race-related differences in healthcare outcomes has been described by Jones who distinguishes between three levels — ____, ____ ____, and ____. She argues that ____ ____ is the most fundamental level and that reducing institutional racism (e.g., through government action) will eventually lead to a ____ of ____ at ____ ____.

Answer 31

Levels of Racism; Institutional, Personally Mediated, and Internalized; Institutional Racism; Reduction of Racism at Other Levels

Question 32

____ ____: The results of opinion polls and other research indicate that blatant forms of ____ have ____ in the United States in recent decades but that they have been replaced by more ____ ____.

Answer 32

Symbolic Racism; Declined; Subtle Forms

Question 33

Sears and his colleagues propose that that ____ (____) ____ has gradually taken the place of “old-fashioned” racism. According to these investigators, symbolic racists believe that African Americans and other minorities ____ such ____ ____ ____ as individualism, self-reliance, and the work ethic. They also deny their ____ and attribute the ____ and ____ problems of minority group members to ____ ____ (e.g., a lack of effort and discipline). In response to survey questions, symbolic racists usually reject ____ ____ of prejudice and discrimination but oppose ____, ____, ____ ____, and other programs designed to assist those who have been the ____ of ____.

Answer 33

Symbolic (Modern) Racism; Violate such Traditional American Values; Prejudice; Social and Economic; Internal Factors; Reject Obvious Forms; Busing, Welfare, Affirmative Action; Target of Discrimination

Question 34

Commonly cited approaches to reducing prejudice include ____ and ____ ____.

Answer 34

Legislation and Intergroup Contact

Question 35

____: One of the earliest recommendations for reducing prejudice was described by Allport in his book, The Nature of Prejudice, in which he argues that it is not always necessary for “____” (personal attitudes and beliefs) to precede “____” (legislation). In other words, Allport believed that ____ ____ ____ can be effective even when they do not reflect ____ ____. While not all experts agree with Allport’s proposal, there is evidence that ____-____, ____ ____, and similar laws can have ____ ____.

Answer 35

Legislation; Folkways; Stateways; Laws Prohibiting Discrimination; Public Consensus; Anti-Discrimination; Hate Crime; Beneficial Effects

Question 36

____ ____: The ____ ____ proposes that prejudice may be reduced through contact between members of the majority and minority groups as long as the following conditions are met: First, members of the different groups must have ____ ____ and ____. Second, members of the groups should be provided with opportunities that ____ their ____ ____ about members of the ____ ____. Third, ____ must be ____ by ____, ____, ____, and ____ ____ ____. Fourth, contact should require ____ ____ to achieve ____ (____) ____.

Answer 36

Intergroup Contact; Contact Hypothesis; Equal Status and Power; Disconfirm their Negative Stereotypes; Other Group; Contact; Sanctioned by Law, Custom, Leaders, and other Institutional Supports; Intergroup Cooperation; Mutual (Superordinate) Goals

Question 37

____ is an aspect of the American power system that occurs when a right or benefit belongs to one group. Because of the implications for treatment, awareness of personal privilege and understanding oppression is essential to becoming a competent clinician. Hays developed the acronym ____ to understand the relationship between cultural influences and privilege.

Answer 37

Privilege; ADDRESSING

Question 38

Fill in ADDRESSING

Answer 38

Question 39

Those without privilege tend to experience prejudice and discrimination ____. For many, the regular experience of oppression perpetuates ____ and ____ any ____ to ____-____. Those with privilege may engage in ____ ____ which includes: the belief in the superiority and inferiority of others, power to impose standards, and that truth and reality are the same experience for everyone. ____ and ____ ____, have helped remedy the impact of ethnocentric monoculturalism by examining power structures, communication, practices, and pedagogy cross-culturally.

Answer 39

Daily; Paranoia and Preempts and Safety to Self-Disclose; Ethnocentric Monoculturalism; Global and International Psychology

Question 40

The research has linked prejudice to several factors including a(n) (1) ____ personality and (2) ____ caused by competition over power and limited resources. Some investigators argue that, to understand racism, you need to understand that it operates on multiple levels.

Answer 40

(1) authoritarian; (2) intergroup conflict

Question 41

For example, (3) ____ racism is expressed through the policies and practices of political, criminal justice, education, and healthcare systems, while (4) ____ racism refers to the acceptance of negative social stereotypes and beliefs by the targets of those stereotypes and beliefs. Sears et al. propose that traditional forms of racism have been largely replaced by (5) ____ racism, which is characterized by a belief that members of minority groups violate traditional American values.

Answer 41

(3) institutional; (4) internalized; (5) symbolic (modern)

Question 42

Allport proposed that, when designing interventions to reduce prejudice, it’s important to keep in mind that (6) ____ can effectively precede folkways. Increasing contact between members of different groups is helpful for reducing prejudice when members of different groups have equal (7) ____ and when intergroup cooperation is needed to achieve mutual goals.

Answer 42

(6) stateways; (7) status and power