Social Perception, Relationships, and the Self Flashcards
1
Q
Topics of interest to Social Psychologists include _________________________________.
A
Social Perception and Cognition, Interpersonal Relationships, the Self in the Social Context, Social Influence, Attitude Change, Aggression, Prejudice, Prosocial Behavior, and the Social Environment
2
Q
Researchers interested in ____ ____ and ____ have identified factors that affect impression formation, causal attributions, and other types of social judgments.
A
Social Perception and Cognition
3
Q
Our ____ of other people are influenced by several factors. For example, we’re often swayed most by information received ____ in an interaction (the ____ ____), and we frequently exhibit a ____ ____ ____ which is the tendency to weigh negative information more heavily than positive information.
A
Impressions; Early; Primacy Effect; Trait Negativity Bias
4
Q
____, ____, and ____ influence the way we interpret the world, including how we perceive and judge other people.
A
Schemata, Prototypes, and Scripts
5
Q
____ (or ____) are organized, interconnected mental networks of information that are based on our previous personal and social experiences and help us process and organize information. For instance, your schema for “supervisor” consists of knowledge that allows you to make judgments about your supervisor’s current behavior and predict his or her future actions.
A
Schemata (or Schemas)
6
Q
Research has shown that people typically pay more attention to evidence that ____ their ____, interpret new information in ways ____ with their schemata, and have better ____ for ____-____ information.
A
Confirms their Schemata; Consistent; Recall for Schema-Consistent
7
Q
____ are more abstract than schemata and consist of knowledge about the most representative or ideal example of a particular category of people, objects, or events. Your supervisor prototype may consist of the ideal attributes you believe a supervisor should have.
A
Prototypes
8
Q
____ are also known as event schemas and provide knowledge about the appropriate sequence of behaviors in specific social situations. As an example, your script for “mental health clinic” informs you about how you should behave in that setting and how you can expect others to behave.
A
Scripts
9
Q
____ ____: Some of the earliest research on ____ ____ was conducted by Asch who found that certain traits influence impressions more than others.
A
Central Traits; Impression Formation
10
Q
A person described as “intelligent, skillful, industrious, warm, determined, practical, and cautious” is likely to be perceived more ____ than a person described as “intelligent, skillful, industrious, cold, determined, practical, and cautious.” According to Asch, this is because “warm” and “cold” are ____ ____ that provide unique information, are associated with a large number of other characteristics, and, as a result, carry more weight than other attributes. More recent work that two primary dimensions underlie impressions of others; ____ and ____.
A
Positively; Central Traits; Warmth and Competence
11
Q
The ____ ____: The impact of the ____ ____ on impression formation was demonstrated by Rosenhan, who had eight ____ (____) admit themselves to mental hospitals complaining that they were hearing voices. After being admitted, the pseudopatients stopped faking symptoms and acted normally when interacting with hospital staff and other patients.
A
The Social Context; Social Context; Pseudopatients (Confederates)
12
Q
Although one-third of the genuine patients suspected that the pseudopatients were ____, the staff diagnosed all but one as having schizophrenia. Results of Rosenhan’s study have been interpreted as showing that the behaviors of others tend to be perceived in a manner that is ____ with the ____ ____ in which they occur.
A
Sane; Consistent; Social Environment
13
Q
____ refers to the process of determining or inferring why a behavior has occurred.
A
Attribution
14
Q
____ of ____: Attributions can be described in terms of the following types: ___________.
A
Types of Attributions; Dispositional versus Situational; Stable versus Unstable; Specific versus Global
15
Q
____ versus ____: Behavior may be attributed to the actor’s ____ (____) ____ or to situational (external) factors. Mood, ability, and desire are dispositional attributes; characteristics of the task, social situation, and physical environment are situational factors.
A
Dispositional versus Situational; Dispositional (Internal) Attributes; Situational (External) Factors; Dispositional Attributes; Situational Factors
16
Q
____ versus ____: Behavior may be assumed to be the result of ____, ____ ____ (e.g., intelligence or personality) or ____, ____ ____ (e.g., fatigue or other transient state).
A
Stable versus Unstable; Stable, Enduring Factors; Unstable, Temporary Factors
17
Q
____ versus ____: Behavior may be viewed as ____ or ____. ____ ____ are restricted to a limited number of events or circumstances, while ____ ____ occur in many different situations.
A
Specific versus Global; Specific or Global; Specific Behaviors; Global Behaviors
18
Q
Heider used two of these types (dispositional vs. situational and stable vs. unstable) to describe attributions for ____ and ____. For example, a person might attribute his or her failure to obtain a job to a ____ ____ ____ (lack of ability), an ____ ____ ____ (lack of effort during the job interview), a ____ ____ ____ (a job market in which there is always too much competition for that job), or an ____ ____ ____ (bad luck).
A
Success and Failure; Stable Dispositional Factor; Unstable Dispositional Factor; Stable Situational Factor; Unstable Situational Factor
19
Q
____ and ____: Several researchers have investigated the impact of ____ on the ____ of ____ that people make in western societies.
A
Gender and Attributions; Gender; Types of Attributions
20
Q
Deaux and Emswiller found that male and female participants attributed the success of a man on a traditionally masculine task to ____ but the success of a woman on the same task to ____ but that male and female participants attributed the success of a man or woman on a traditionally feminine task to ____. Subsequent research has indicated that men tend to attribute their own success to ____ ____ of ____ and failure to a ____ of ____ or ____ ____, while women attribute their own success to ____ ____ or ____ ____ and failure to a ____ of ____.
A
Ability; Luck; Ability; High Levels of Ability; Lack of Effort or Unfair Treatment; High Effort or Outside Help; Lack of Availability
21
Q
____ ____: A number of ____ ____ are known to impact our judgments about the causes of behavior.
A
Attributional Biases; Cognitive Biases
22
Q
____ ____ ____: The attributions we make about the behaviors of others often reflect the ____ ____ ____, which occurs when we overestimate the role of dispositional factors and underestimate the role of situational factors.
A
Fundamental Attribution Error; Fundamental Attribution Error
23
Q
We’re more likely to attribute a stranger’s rude behavior to his ____ ____ than to the possibility that he’s having a ____ ____. The fundamental attribution error has been used to explain several phenomena including the belief in a ____ ____, which is the tendency for people to view victims as the cause of their own misfortune.
A
Unpleasant Personality; Bad Day; Just World
24
Q
____-____ ____: The fundamental attribution bias does not usually apply to inferences we make about our ____ ____. Instead, we’re more likely to attribute our own behavior to ____ ____. The tendency to make different attributions about our own behaviors and the behaviors of others is referred to as the ____-____ ____.
A
Actor-Observer Effect; Own Behavior; Situational Factors; Actor-Observer Effect
25
The fundamental attribution error is actually a ____ ____ of the actor-observer effect. Researchers find that people will make attributions to whatever is most ____ to them. For actors, the ____ is most salient, but for observers, the ____ is most salient.
Special Case; Salient; Situation; Actor
26
____-____ ____: Studies investigating the actor-observer effect have found that self-attributions are often influenced by the consequences of our ____: Although we tend to attribute our behaviors to ____ ____ when the consequences are ____, we often attribute them to ____ ____ when the consequences are ____.
Self-Serving Bias; Behavior; Situational Factors; Negative; Dispositional Factors; Positive
27
The tendency to blame external factors for our failures and take credit for our successes is referred to as the ____-____ ____. The self-serving bias appears to be relatively ____, but there are exceptions. People who are depressed, for instance, often exhibit ____ ____ — i.e., they attribute their failures to internal, stable, and global factors.
Self-Serving Bias; Universal; Learned Helplessness
28
____ are mental shortcuts or rules-of-thumb, which people use when making attributions and other social judgments. Although heuristics allow us to reach conclusions ____, they may result in ____.
Heuristics; Quickly; Errors
29
The ____ ____ involves basing your judgment about the likelihood that a person, object, or event belongs to a particular category on how representative (similar) the person, object, or event is to that category while ignoring probability (base rate) data. If you learn that a person is introspective, creative, and likes to work alone, you're more likely to conclude that she's a writer of novels than a postal worker even though you have only limited information about her and the number of postal workers in the population is much larger than the number of novelists.
Representative Heuristic
30
The ____ ____ involves judging the likelihood or frequency of an event based on how easy it is to retrieve information about the event from long-term memory. In other words, you'll predict that an event is more likely to occur if you're able to recall ____ ____ of its occurrence than if you're able to recall only ____ ____.
Availability Heuristic; Many Examples; One Example
31
In one study, Tversky and Kahneman gave participants a list of names of famous men and women but, for some participants, the men in the list were more famous than the women while, for other participants, the women in the list were more famous than the men. Each participant was subsequently asked to estimate the number of men and women in his or her list. There were an equal number of men and women; but, consistent with the availability heuristic, participants identified the gender that had the ____ ____ (____) ____ as being more frequent.
Most Famous (Salient) Names; Frequent
32
The ____ ____ involves using mental simulations of an event to determine the likelihood that the event will happen — i.e., if you can ____ ____ that the event will happen, you're more likely to predict that it will happen. Use of the simulation heuristic has been linked to certain ____.
Simulation Heuristic; Easily Imagine; Consequences
33
Medvec, Madey, and Gilovich found that Olympic athletes who had won the silver medal appeared to be less happy about their win than those who had won the bronze medal, apparently because it was easier for silver medalists to imagine ____ the ____.
Winning the Gold
34
The ____ and ____ ____ involves using an initial value (____) as the basis for making a judgment or estimate and then making ____ up or down from that starting value. For example, if the seller of an item at a flea market tells you that he usually sells the item for $10.00, your offer will be closer to $10.00 than it would have been if the seller said he usually sells the item for $7.00.
Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic; Anchor; Adjustments
35
Baumeister and Bushman propose that, to deal with ____ ____, the human mind often relies on ____ ____ that facilitates the quick understanding and integration of incoming information but may also lead to ____ ____ and ____.
Information Overload; Automatic Processing; Cognitive Errors and Biases
36
The ____ ____ ____ is the tendency to rely on case-specific information and ignore or underuse base rate data when estimating the likelihood of an event or characteristic.
Base Rate Fallacy
37
When participants in a research study were asked to estimate the likelihood that a hypothetical student will take an economics or history course and told that the overall proportion of students in these courses is .30 and .70, respectively, the participants were more likely to rely on information about the student's ____ ____ than on the ____ ____ information. Some experts explain this phenomenon as a "____ ____" of the ____ or ____ ____, while others argue that the base rate fallacy is itself a ____ — i.e., that the research supporting it is flawed and that people do not ignore ____ ____ as often as the studies suggest.
Personality Traits; Base Rate; Side-Effect; Representativeness or Availability Heuristic; Fallacy; Base Rates
38
The ____ ____ is the tendency to pay attention to information that confirms one's beliefs and ignore or invalidate information that does not. The confirmation bias has been used to explain a number of phenomena including paranormal beliefs, hypochondriasis and paranoia, and the persistence of stereotypes.
Confirmation Bias
39
The ____ ____ is the belief that two characteristics, events, or other variables are related when they actually are not. The illusory correlation is similar to the confirmation bias in terms of outcomes because it causes us to recall and pay more attention to information that ____ our ____. One explanation for this error is that it's the result of a ____ that links the ____ ____.
Illusory Correlation; Confirms our Belief; Schema; Two Variables
40
If you meet a politician and immediately assume that she's dishonest, this is probably due to your schema for politicians. Another explanation is that humans underwent ____ ____ to find ____ ____ among events because such a bias would increase ____.
Evolutionary Selection; Casual Patterns; Survival
41
The ____ ____ ____ occurs when we overestimate the degree to which the beliefs, opinions, and behaviors of others are similar to our own. As an example, Wolfson (2000) asked college students who did or did not use drugs to estimate drug use by their peers and found that students who used drugs provided significantly higher estimates of peer drug use.
False Consensus Effect
42
The ____ ____ is the tendency to believe that the likelihood of a particular chance event is affected by the occurrence of previous events when there is actually no relationship between the events. The gambler's fallacy is illustrated by a gambler who is convinced that a string of losses must be followed by a win and by parents who think their next child will be a girl since they've already had four boys and no girls.
Gambler’s Fallacy
43
The impressions we form of others are affected by a number of factors including (1) ____ which are organized, interconnected mental networks of information that help us process and organize social information and (2) ____ which provide knowledge about the appropriate sequence of behaviors in specific social situations. Our impressions are also influenced by (3) ____ traits that carry more weight than other traits because the) provide unique information about a person and by the (4) ____ which was demonstrated by Rosenhan's pseudopatient study.
(l) schemata; (2) scripts; (3) central; (4) social context
44
The attributions we make about the behaviors of others often reflect the (5) ____ bias, which means that we tend to overestimate the role of (6) ____ factors when making attributions about the behaviors of other people. Research on the actor-observer effect has shown that, when making self-attributions, we tend to attribute our successes to (7) ____ factors and our failures to (8) ____ factors. This tendency is referred to as the (9) ____ bias.
(5) fundamental attribution; (6) dispositional; (7) dispositional; (8) situational; (9) self-serving
45
Heuristics are mental shortcuts that people use when making attributions and other social judgments. The (10) ____ heuristic involves basing your judgment of a person, object, or event on how similar the person, object, or event is to the typical case while ignoring probability (base rate) data; while the (11) ____ heuristic involves judging the likelihood or frequency of an event based on how easy it is to retrieve information about the event from long-term memory.
(10) representativeness; (11) availability
46
Several cognitive errors and biases have been identified. One of these is the (12) ____, which is the tendency to rely on case-specific information and ignore or underuse probability data when estimating the likelihood of an event or characteristic. Another is the (13) ____, which is the tendency to pay attention to information that is consistent with one's beliefs and ignore or invalidate information that is not. The (14) ____ effect occurs when we overestimate the extent to which the attitudes and beliefs of others are similar to our own.
(12) base rate fallacy; (13) confirmation bias; (14) false consensus
47
____ of ____ to ____ ____ investigating interpersonal relationships include affliation and attraction, sexual jealousy, emotion in relationships, and the maintenance and dissolution of relationships.
Issues of Interest to Social Psychologists
48
____ is considered to be an innate motive that contributes to the initiation and maintenance of interpersonal relationships. Research on affiliation has confirmed that it is affected by several factors including ____, ____, and ____.
Affiliation; Anxiety, Arousability, and Gender
49
____: To test the hypothesis that ____ increases the desire to affiliate, Schachter led research participants to believe that they would be receiving either painful shock (____-____ ____) or nonpainful shock (____-____ ____) and then asked them if they wanted to wait alone or with other participants. As predicted, more high-anxiety than low-anxiety participants chose to ____ with ____.
Anxiety; Anxiety; High-Anxiety Condition; Low-Anxiety Condition; Wait with Others
50
In subsequent research, Schachter found that highly anxious participants preferred to wait with other highly anxious participants but, when given the choice to wait alone or with non-anxious individuals, they chose to ____ ____. Based on these results, Schachter concluded that, in anxiety-arousing conditions, ____ ____ is a more ____ ____ of ____ than ____ from ____ and that the adage "misery loves company" is better stated as "____ ____ ____ ____.”
Wait Alone; Social Comparison; Potent Cause of Affiliation; Relief from Discomfort; Misery Loves Miserable Company
51
____: According to Johnson and colleagues, the degree to which a person's central nervous system is ____ ____ by external stimuli (including the presence of others) affects their desire to ____. Specifically, Eysenck proposed that ____ are people who are high in arousability and are likely to avoid amating with others to keep their arousal from reaching an uncomfortable level. In contrast, ____ are low in arousability and seek affiliations with others to stimulate their arousal to an optimal level.
Arousability; Physiologically Aroused; Affiliate; Introverts; Extroverts
52
Studies on ____ ____ in ____ have found that women ordinarily spend more time than men engaged in conversation, are more likely to talk to people of the same sex, and may affiliate more than men do in public places. In fact Taylor et al. propose that a primary stress response for women is to "____-and-____" rather than "____-or-____."
Gender Differences in Affiliation; Tend-and-Befriend; Fight-or-Flight
53
There is also evidence that ____ have more close friends and that female friendships depend most on ____ ____ and ____-____, while male friendships more often develop out of ____ ____. Although most of the evidence suggests that women have more ____-____ ____ ____ ____, studies show that men have greater ____ for ____-____ ____ and that male friendships endure ____ than female ____.
Women; Verbal Communication and Self-Disclosure; Shared Activities; Same-Sex Emotionally Intimate Relationships; Tolerance for Same-Sex Peers; Longer; Friendships
54
____ (liking) is a special type of ____ and, like ____, is affected by a number of factors.
Attraction; Affiliation; Affiliation
55
____: We tend to like ____ and intelligent people more than their incompetent and unintelligent peers, and this is especially true when the ____ person occasionally makes small blunders.
Competence; Competent; Competent
56
____: We are generally more attracted to people who are ____ to ourselves, with ____ in attitudes being particularly important. According to Byrne's ____ of ____, we are attracted to others who have similar attitudes because interacting with those individuals is more rewarding than interacting with people who have dissimilar attitudes and, consequently, is more likely to generate positive affect.
Similarity; Similar; Similarity; Law of Attraction
57
____: We generally like others who like us and dislike those who dislike us. However, attraction to a person is often maximized when that person's evaluation of us is initially negative but then becomes positive. This ____-____ ____ is most likely to occur when the person's change in opinion is gradual and clearly reflects a true "change of heart."
Reciprocity; Gain-Loss Effect
58
____ in ____ ____: The studies have confirmed that men and women differ with regard to the qualities that attract them to romantic partners, with men focusing most on the ____ ____ of a potential mate and women being more interested in a potential mate's ____ and ____. An explanation for these differences has been provided by ____ ____ ____ of ____, which emphasizes gender differences in reproductive strategies (which may or may not be consciously accessible.)
Attraction in Romantic Relationship; Physical Attractiveness; Status and Resources; Evolutionary Psychology Theory of Attraction
59
The primary goal for men is to ____ on their ____ to the next ____ by widely dispersing their genetic material. As a result, men are attracted to young physically attractive women whose youth and beauty signal ____ and ____.
Pass on their Genes; Generation; Health and Fertility
60
Research investigating the physical traits that men find desirable have found that these include large breasts, narrow hips, and a waist-to-hip ratio of about 0.7 (waist circumference about 70% of hip circumference), which signal the ____ ____ ____. In contrast, the primary reproductive goal for women to pass on their genes to the next generation is to invest more heavily in the ____ ____ of ____ they can ____ given the ____ ____ of ____.
Greatest Reproductive Potential; Limited Number of Children; Produce; Physical Restraints of Pregnancy
61
Consequently, women tend to be attracted to men who have ____ ____ to ____ for ____ and their ____ and traits such as ____ and ____ ____ that help ensure that the man remain ____ to the ____.
Adequate Resources to Provide for Them and their Children; Loyalty and Emotional Stability; Committed to the Relationship
62
Cross-cultural research has found that ____ ____ is fairly universal, although cultures may differ with regard to the ____ of ____ that elicit jealousy. Also, according to evolutionary theory, there are ____ ____ in jealousy that can be traced to differences in ____ ____.
Sexual Jealousy; Types of Behavior; Gender Differences; Reproductive Goals
63
Buss, Larsen, Westen, and Semmelroth conclude that the major threat to a man's reproductive goals is the chance that another man will make his wife ____ and, therefore, jealousy is elicited primarily by ____ ____. However, the major threat to a woman's reproductive goals is the possibility that her husband will become ____ ____ with another woman and be unavailable to provide ____ to ____ ____ and ____ ____.
Pregnant; Sexual Infidelity; Emotionally involved; Resources to Support Her and Her Children
64
Sexual jealousy in women is more likely to be provoked by ____ ____. Note that, while some studies using attitude measures support Buss et al.'s proposal, there is evidence that physiological reactions to both types of infidelity are ____ for men and women. The inconsistencies in the research have led some investigators to conclude that gender differences in sexual jealousy are affected, to some degree, by ____ ____.
Emotional Infidelity; Similar; Cultural Expectations
65
____ in ____ ____: People often experience their strongest emotions within the context of ____ ____ ____. Berscheid's ____-in-____ ____ addresses the events that trigger strong emotions in close relationships and proposes that there is an innate mechanism that generates emotion whenever a partner engages in behaviors that violate expectations and disrupt ongoing sequences of behaviors.
Emotion in Intimate Relationships; Close Interpersonal Relationships; Emotion-in-Relationship Model
66
A husband is likely to have a ____ ____ ____ when he learns that his previously faithful wife is currently having an affair. Berscheid's model also predicts that positive emotions are generally more intense in the ____ ____ of a relationship when a partner's positive actions are still ____ and ____ than during the later stages when those actions are more ____ and, consequently, ____ ____.
Strong Emotional Reaction; Initial Stages; Surprising and Unexpected; Predictable; Less Rewarding
67
The ____ and ____ of ____: Social exchange theory and equity theory are two of the theories that have been proposed to explain why people decide to remain in or leave a relationship.
Maintenance and Dissolution of Relationships
68
____ ____ ____ predicts that the decision to leave a relationship depends on the relationship's costs and rewards — i.e., we're likely to stay in a relationship when rewards exceed costs but leave when costs are greater than rewards. There is some evidence that social exchange theory is more predictive of relationships with ____, ____, and ____ ____ than of relationships with ____ ____ and ____ ____ because, in the latter relationships, we're less likely to expect something in return for our ____.
Social Exchange Theory; Strangers, Acquaintances, and Business Associates; Family Members and Close Friends; Contributions
69
According to ____ ____, our perception of ____ (fairness) in a relationship is more important that the absolute magnitude of the inputs (contributions or costs) and outcomes (rewards). In other words, people consider a relationship to be ____ and are likely to stay in it when they believe their input/outcome ratio is proportional to the ____/____ ____ of the ____ ____. However, when people perceive a relationship to be ____ in terms of ____/____ ____, they experience ____ and may decide to ____.
Equity Theory; Equity; Equitable; Input/Outcome Ratio is Proportional; Input/Outcome Ration of the Other Person; Inequitable; Input/Outcome Ratios; Distress; Leave
70
When studying differences in how people and groups are ____, it is necessary to clarify what it means for a person to be considered as such. There are two particularly relevant aspects to consider: (a) ____, which is the degree an individual may be differentiated from others; and (b) ____, the clear ____ ____ of an individual's ____, and an ____-____ ____ to the ____ of ____.
Perceived; Identifiability; Personality; Internal Consistency; Identity; Individual-Level Similarity; Personality of Groups
71
In addition to being very sought-after (in both others and in the self), ____ ____ is postulated as necessary for identity (e.g., moral character information is seen as essential to identity, and separate of contextual weight), as well as to perceptions of ____ ____ and ____ (e.g., people are perceived to have greater control and greater responsibility over their ____ character traits).
Moral Character; Trait Controllability and Responsibility; Moral
72
The research in ____ ____ proposes that "____," broadly constructed, should be of key significance in ____ ____. The weight of other character traits over warmth traits is likely to be most pronounced for ____ ____ or ____ of greater ____ or ____, where much is at ____, and where another individual may possess the opportunity to ____ or ____ a ____ in ____ ____.
Social Cognition; Warmth; Person Perception; Social Roles or Contexts; Importance or Intimacy; Stake; Hurt or Help a Person in Substantial Ways
73
With advanced ____ and ____ ____ (ICTs), especially the internet, people and researchers see the ____ ____ in the use of this form of ____ in broadening people's ____ ____ and participation to continue to strengthen ____ ____. As the internet allows people to communicate with family, friends, co-workers, strangers across great distances and cultures without time constraints, it strengthens people's ____ ____ and assists them in forming ____ ____.
Information and Communication Technologies; Great Potential; Communication; Social Experiences; Social Ties; Social Relationships; New Relationships
74
The use of the internet for ____ ____ is different from traditional face-to-face communication in enriching the quality of life.
Interpersonal Communication
75
____ ____ does have the potential to have an ____ ____ on people's perceived ____ ____, however, the relative lack of strong ties or in-depth quality that can result in ____ ____ cannot be the ____ ____ for the ____ ____ of ____ ____ on ____ of ____. An absence of ____ ____: lack of ____, and less demand for ____ in internet communication results in ____, ____ ____, and difficulty in building ____ ____. These are reasons why there is a ____ ____ of online communication to perceived ____ of ____.
Online Communication; Adverse Effect; Life Quality; Internet Communication; Sole Reason; Negative Effect of Online Communication on Quality of Life; Nonverbal Cues; Warmth; Engagement; Impersonality; Shallow Interactions; Social Support; Negative Contribution; Quality of Life
76
In general, under normal circumstances, people engage in online communication in a ____-____, if not ____, manner.
Sub-Interpersonal; Impersonal
77
Schachter's research on affiliation demonstrated that, in anxiety-arousing situations, social (1) ____ is a more potent determinant of affiliation than relief from discomfort and that the adage "misery loves company" is more accurately stated as "misery loves company” is more accurately stated as “misery loves (2) ____.” In terms of gender, women spend more time than men in conversation, and their friendships often depend more on communication and (3) ____ than on shared activities.
(1) comparison; (2) miserable company; (3) self-disclosure
78
We tend to be attracted to competent people, especially when they occasionally make (4) ____. According to Byrne's law of attraction, interactions with people who have similar attitudes are more rewarding and, therefore, more likely to produce (5) ____. Research on the (6) ____ effect has shown that we are most attracted to people who initially evaluate us negatively but subsequently evaluate us positively.
(4) small blunders; (5) positive affect; (6) gain-loss
79
According to evolutionary theory, gender differences in attraction to a potential mate and sexual jealousy are attributable to gender differences in (7) ____ goals. Consequently, with regard to sexual jealousy, men are more threatened by (8) ____ infidelity, while women are more threatened by (9) ____ infidelity.
(7) reproductive; (8) sexual; (9) emotional
80
Berscheid's emotion-in-relationship model predicts that, in close relationships, emotion is triggered when a partner engages in behaviors that violate expectations and disrupt ongoing (10) ____. According to social exchange theory, the decision to remain in or leave a relationship is based on the (11) ____ associated with the relationship, while equity theory proposes that this decision is related to our perception of the comparability of (12) ____ ratios.
(10) sequences of behavior; (11) costs and rewards; (12) input/outcome
81
When considering what it means for a person to be a person, two concepts should be considered: (13) ____, which is the degree an individual may be differentiated from others; and (14) ____, the clear internal consistency of an individual's identity, Online communication allows for opportunities to broaden and possibly strengthen social relationships, however, these interactions may be impersonal and demonstrate a lack of (15) ____.
(13) identifiability; (14) personality; (15) depth
82
Psychologists interested in the self in ____ ____ have investigated issues related to the self-concept, self-presentation, and perceived self-control.
Social Context
83
The ____-____ is "the sum total of beliefs that people have about themselves." Research on the self-concept has identified its cognitive components and factors that contribute to it.
Self-Concept
84
____-____: Current descriptions of the self-concept conceptualize it as being comprised of multiple elements that may be ____ ____ and sometimes ____ and propose that only some elements may be in ____ ____ at any particular point in time (e.g., Baumeister & Finkel, 2010). For example, Markus and her colleagues describe the self-concept as consisting of multiple core and peripheral (working) ____-____.
Self-Schemas; Loosely Connected; Contradictory; Conscious Awareness; Self-Schemas
85
____ ____-____ are "cognitive generalizations about the self, derived from past experience, that organize and guide the processing of self-related information contained in the individual’s social experience." Core self-schemas are relatively ____ and ____ across ____. In contrast, ____ ____-____ are embedded in core self-schemas but are more malleable and tied to immediate social conditions.
Core Self-Schemas; Stable and Salient; Situations; Peripheral Self-Schemas
86
The multifaceted nature of the self-concept has been offered as one explanation for the ____ ____ (also known as the Forer effect), which is the tendency for people to accept vague or general descriptions as accurate descriptions of themselves. In studies on the Barnum effect, participants are given a general description in the form of a personal horoscope or a handwriting or personality analysis.
Barnum Effect
87
Although the same description is given to all participants, the majority agree that it is a "____ ____" description of themselves. The Barnum effect has also been attributed to other factors including ____, ____ ____, and the ____-____ and ____ ____.
Highly Accurate; Gullibility, Selective Memory, and the Self-Serving and Confirmation Biases
88
Daryl Bem's ____-____ ____ proposes that, when internal cues are insufficient or difficult to interpret, people acquire information about themselves by observing their external behaviors and/or the context in which those behaviors occur.
Self-Perception Theory
89
Self-perception theory is supported by Schachter and Singer's "____ ____," which examined the perception of emotion. Participants in this research were injected with epinephrine, a drug that produces mild physiological arousal, or a placebo, and those injected with epinephrine were assigned to one of three conditions: Participants in the ____ ____ were told what the true effects of the injection would be; those in the ____ ____ were given false information about the injection's effects; and those in the ____ ____ were told the drug would have no side effects. Each participant was then placed in a waiting room with a ____ who had been instructed to act in either an ____ or ____ ____. While in the waiting room, participants in the ____ and ____ ____ acted much like the confederate did (angry or euphoric), whereas ____ ____ did not.
Epinephrine Studies; Informed Condition; Misinformed Condition; Ignorant Condition; Confederate; Angry or Euphoric Manner; Misinformed; Ignorant Conditions; Informed Participants
90
According to Schachter and Singer, these (epinephrine studies) results demonstrate that there are ____ ____ ____ between ____ and that the ____ of ____ depends on a combination of ____ ____ and a ____ ____ for that ____. Consistent with self-perception theory, their research showed that, in ____ ____, people look at cues in the ____ ____ to identify their ____ ____.
No Physiological Differences; Emotions; Perception of Emotion; Physiological Arousal; Cognitive Label; Arousal; Ambiguous Situations; External Environment; Internal States
91
Additional evidence for self-perception theory is provided by studies on the ____ ____, which predicts that, when an external reward is given to a person for performing an intrinsically rewarding activity, the person's intrinsic interest in the activity decreases.
Overjustification Hypothesis
92
In one study, Lepper, Greene, and Nisbett asked children in two groups to draw pictures with felt-tip markers, with children in one group being given an ____ ____ for doing so. Subsequently, children in the external reward condition showed ____ ____ in the markers than children in the no ____ ____ condition. From the perspective of self-perception theory, this result was due to the fact that children in the external reward condition attributed their use of the markers to the external reward and, as a result, stopped using them when the reward was ____.
External Reward; Less Interest; External Reward; Terminated
93
According to ____ ____ ____, people have an innate drive to evaluate their own opinions and behaviors; and, in the absence of objective standards, they do so by comparing their opinions and behaviors to those of other people. Social comparisons most often involve people who are ____ in terms of attitudes, performance, and other attributes.
Social Comparison Theory; Similar
94
____ (____) ____ are sometimes made, especially when evaluating an ____ ____ or ____. When judging our own level of anger, for instance, we're likely to compare ourselves to others we consider to be even ____ ____.
Dissimilar (Downward) Comparisons; Undesirable Behavior or Condition; More Angry
95
____-____ ____ predicts that, once a person's self-concept is formed, the person seeks to maintain it by using cognitive and behavioral strategies that are designed to obtain information that is consistent with that self-concept.
Self-Verification Theory
96
People tend to recall and pay attention to information that ____ their ____-____ and prefer to interact with others who provide information that ____ their ____-____. With regard to the latter, Swann, Hixon, and De La Ronde found that, in close relationships, partners with a negative self-view reported higher levels of ____ to the ____ when their partners confirmed their ____ ____-____.
Confirms their Self-Concepts; Confirms their Self-Views; Commitment to the Relationship; Negative Self-Perceptions
97
____-____ is also known as impression management and refers to the strategies that people use to influence how others perceive them.
Self-Presentation
98
According to Snyder, people differ in terms of ____-____, or their need and ability to manage the impressions that others form of them. People ____ in ____-____ are most concerned about their "____ ___” and, consequently, strive to match their attitudes and behaviors to the situation. These individuals are exceptionally good at determining what behaviors, attitudes, and values are ____ ____ or ____ in a situation and at concealing their ____ ____ and ____.
Self-Monitoring; High in Self-Monitoring; Public Self; Socially Desirable or Expected; True Feelings and Opinions
99
In contrast, people ____ in ____-____ are guided primarily by their own beliefs, values, and other internal cues and attempt to alter the situation to match their "____ ____."
Low in Self-Monitoring; Private Self
100
____-____ occurs when people attempt to protect their self-esteem and public image by engaging in behaviors that will provide them with an excuse for an anticipated failure. For example, a student who is concerned about failing an important exam might stay up the night before the exam partying with friends instead of studying so that, if she obtains a low score on the test, she can attribute it to the party rather than her lack of ability or knowledge.
Self-Handicapping
101
The ____ of ____-____ refers to the expectation that we can perform behaviors that will produce desired outcomes. Characteristics that have been linked to perceived self-control include ____-____ ____, ____ of ____, and ____.
Perception of Self-Control; Self-Efficacy Beliefs, Locas of Control, and Hardiness
102
As defined by Bandura, ____-____ refers to a person's sense of competence and effectiveness. ____ ____ of ____-____ have been associated with a number of ____ including higher levels of productivity and academic achievement, reduced vulnerability to depression and anxiety, and better response to treatment for health-related problems.
Self-Efficacy; High Levels of Self-Efficacy; Benefits
103
____ of ____ refers to the extent to which people believe that personal outcomes are controlled by internal versus external factors. People with an ____ ____ of ____ consider outcomes to be under the control of their own decisions and behaviors, while those with an ____ ____ of ____ consider outcomes to be controlled by external forces such as luck, other people, or the nature of the situation.
Locus of Control; Internal Locas of Control; External Locas of Control
104
The research indicates that an internal locus of control is associated with ____ ____ ____, including higher levels of academic achievement and job performance, higher levels of optimism and inquisitiveness, and a greater willingness to participate in preventive health measures.
More Desirable Outcomes
105
____: Kobasa and her colleagues conducted research to determine why some people are more ____ than others when faced with ____. The results indicated that the personality trait of ____ acts as a protective factor and has three primary characteristics: ____ (a sense of purpose and involvement in one's relationships and life events), ____ (an openness to new experiences and change), and ____ (the belief that one can influence or manage life events).
Hardiness; Resilient; Stress; Hardiness; Commitment; Challenge; Control
106
According to these Kobasa and her colleagues, ____ reduces the ____ ____ of ____ ____ ____ by facilitating ____ ____, which involves directly altering those events or thinking about them more optimistically and using social support and other resources.
Hardiness; Negative Effects of Stressful Life Events; Transformational Coping
107
Markus and her colleagues (1977) describe the self-concept as consisting of multiple (1) ____ and peripheral (working) self-schemas, and the multifaceted nature of the self-concept has been offered as one explanation for the (2) ____, which is the tendency for people to accept vague or general descriptions as accurate descriptions of themselves.
(1) core; (2) Barnum effect
108
According to (3) ____ theory, when internal cues are insufficient or difficult to interpret, we identify our internal state by observing our (4) ____ and/or the context in which they occur. This theory is supported by Schachter and Singer's epinephrine studies in which participants who were either (5) ____ or ignorant about the effects of the drug acted much like the confederate did.
(3) self-perception; (4) external behaviors; (5) misinformed
109
Similarly, research on the (6) ____ hypothesis found that, when children were given an external reward for participating in an activity, they were subsequently (7) ____ interested in the activity when the reward was terminated.
(6) overjustification; (7) less
110
Social comparison theory predicts that we evaluate our behaviors and attitudes by comparing them to those of other people, most often people who we believe are (8) ____ to us. Research on (9) ____ theory confirms that we generally prefer feedback about ourselves that is consistent with our self-concept. People differ with regard to their level of self-monitoring: (10) ____ self-monitors are good at identifying what behaviors are expected of them and behave in ways that are consistent with those expectations.
(8) similar; (9) self-verification; (10) High
111
Finally, (11) ____ refers to a person's sense of competence and effectiveness, while (12) ____ refers to the extent to which people believe that personal outcomes are controlled by internal versus external factors.
(11) self-efficacy; (12) locus of control
