Social Perception, Relationships, and the Self

Question 1

Topics of interest to Social Psychologists include _________________________________.

Answer 1

Social Perception and Cognition, Interpersonal Relationships, the Self in the Social Context, Social Influence, Attitude Change, Aggression, Prejudice, Prosocial Behavior, and the Social Environment

Question 2

Researchers interested in ____ ____ and ____ have identified factors that affect impression formation, causal attributions, and other types of social judgments.

Answer 2

Social Perception and Cognition

Question 3

Our ____ of other people are influenced by several factors. For example, we’re often swayed most by information received ____ in an interaction (the ____ ____), and we frequently exhibit a ____ ____ ____ which is the tendency to weigh negative information more heavily than positive information.

Answer 3

Impressions; Early; Primacy Effect; Trait Negativity Bias

Question 4

____, ____, and ____ influence the way we interpret the world, including how we perceive and judge other people.

Answer 4

Schemata, Prototypes, and Scripts

Question 5

____ (or ____) are organized, interconnected mental networks of information that are based on our previous personal and social experiences and help us process and organize information. For instance, your schema for “supervisor” consists of knowledge that allows you to make judgments about your supervisor’s current behavior and predict his or her future actions.

Answer 5

Schemata (or Schemas)

Question 6

Research has shown that people typically pay more attention to evidence that ____ their ____, interpret new information in ways ____ with their schemata, and have better ____ for ____-____ information.

Answer 6

Confirms their Schemata; Consistent; Recall for Schema-Consistent

Question 7

____ are more abstract than schemata and consist of knowledge about the most representative or ideal example of a particular category of people, objects, or events. Your supervisor prototype may consist of the ideal attributes you believe a supervisor should have.

Answer 7

Prototypes

Question 8

____ are also known as event schemas and provide knowledge about the appropriate sequence of behaviors in specific social situations. As an example, your script for “mental health clinic” informs you about how you should behave in that setting and how you can expect others to behave.

Answer 8

Scripts

Question 9

____ ____: Some of the earliest research on ____ ____ was conducted by Asch who found that certain traits influence impressions more than others.

Answer 9

Central Traits; Impression Formation

Question 10

A person described as “intelligent, skillful, industrious, warm, determined, practical, and cautious” is likely to be perceived more ____ than a person described as “intelligent, skillful, industrious, cold, determined, practical, and cautious.” According to Asch, this is because “warm” and “cold” are ____ ____ that provide unique information, are associated with a large number of other characteristics, and, as a result, carry more weight than other attributes. More recent work that two primary dimensions underlie impressions of others; ____ and ____.

Answer 10

Positively; Central Traits; Warmth and Competence

Question 11

The ____ ____: The impact of the ____ ____ on impression formation was demonstrated by Rosenhan, who had eight ____ (____) admit themselves to mental hospitals complaining that they were hearing voices. After being admitted, the pseudopatients stopped faking symptoms and acted normally when interacting with hospital staff and other patients.

Answer 11

The Social Context; Social Context; Pseudopatients (Confederates)

Question 12

Although one-third of the genuine patients suspected that the pseudopatients were ____, the staff diagnosed all but one as having schizophrenia. Results of Rosenhan’s study have been interpreted as showing that the behaviors of others tend to be perceived in a manner that is ____ with the ____ ____ in which they occur.

Answer 12

Sane; Consistent; Social Environment

Question 13

____ refers to the process of determining or inferring why a behavior has occurred.

Answer 13

Attribution

Question 14

____ of ____: Attributions can be described in terms of the following types: ___________.

Answer 14

Types of Attributions; Dispositional versus Situational; Stable versus Unstable; Specific versus Global

Question 15

____ versus ____: Behavior may be attributed to the actor’s ____ (____) ____ or to situational (external) factors. Mood, ability, and desire are dispositional attributes; characteristics of the task, social situation, and physical environment are situational factors.

Answer 15

Dispositional versus Situational; Dispositional (Internal) Attributes; Situational (External) Factors; Dispositional Attributes; Situational Factors

Question 16

____ versus ____: Behavior may be assumed to be the result of ____, ____ ____ (e.g., intelligence or personality) or ____, ____ ____ (e.g., fatigue or other transient state).

Answer 16

Stable versus Unstable; Stable, Enduring Factors; Unstable, Temporary Factors

Question 17

____ versus ____: Behavior may be viewed as ____ or ____. ____ ____ are restricted to a limited number of events or circumstances, while ____ ____ occur in many different situations.

Answer 17

Specific versus Global; Specific or Global; Specific Behaviors; Global Behaviors

Question 18

Heider used two of these types (dispositional vs. situational and stable vs. unstable) to describe attributions for ____ and ____. For example, a person might attribute his or her failure to obtain a job to a ____ ____ ____ (lack of ability), an ____ ____ ____ (lack of effort during the job interview), a ____ ____ ____ (a job market in which there is always too much competition for that job), or an ____ ____ ____ (bad luck).

Answer 18

Success and Failure; Stable Dispositional Factor; Unstable Dispositional Factor; Stable Situational Factor; Unstable Situational Factor

Question 19

____ and ____: Several researchers have investigated the impact of ____ on the ____ of ____ that people make in western societies.

Answer 19

Gender and Attributions; Gender; Types of Attributions

Question 20

Deaux and Emswiller found that male and female participants attributed the success of a man on a traditionally masculine task to ____ but the success of a woman on the same task to ____ but that male and female participants attributed the success of a man or woman on a traditionally feminine task to ____. Subsequent research has indicated that men tend to attribute their own success to ____ ____ of ____ and failure to a ____ of ____ or ____ ____, while women attribute their own success to ____ ____ or ____ ____ and failure to a ____ of ____.

Answer 20

Ability; Luck; Ability; High Levels of Ability; Lack of Effort or Unfair Treatment; High Effort or Outside Help; Lack of Availability

Question 21

____ ____: A number of ____ ____ are known to impact our judgments about the causes of behavior.

Answer 21

Attributional Biases; Cognitive Biases

Question 22

____ ____ ____: The attributions we make about the behaviors of others often reflect the ____ ____ ____, which occurs when we overestimate the role of dispositional factors and underestimate the role of situational factors.

Answer 22

Fundamental Attribution Error; Fundamental Attribution Error

Question 23

We’re more likely to attribute a stranger’s rude behavior to his ____ ____ than to the possibility that he’s having a ____ ____. The fundamental attribution error has been used to explain several phenomena including the belief in a ____ ____, which is the tendency for people to view victims as the cause of their own misfortune.

Answer 23

Unpleasant Personality; Bad Day; Just World

Question 24

____-____ ____: The fundamental attribution bias does not usually apply to inferences we make about our ____ ____. Instead, we’re more likely to attribute our own behavior to ____ ____. The tendency to make different attributions about our own behaviors and the behaviors of others is referred to as the ____-____ ____.

Answer 24

Actor-Observer Effect; Own Behavior; Situational Factors; Actor-Observer Effect

Question 25

The fundamental attribution error is actually a ____ ____ of the actor-observer effect. Researchers find that people will make attributions to whatever is most ____ to them. For actors, the ____ is most salient, but for observers, the ____ is most salient.

Answer 25

Special Case; Salient; Situation; Actor

Question 26

____-____ ____: Studies investigating the actor-observer effect have found that self-attributions are often influenced by the consequences of our ____: Although we tend to attribute our behaviors to ____ ____ when the consequences are ____, we often attribute them to ____ ____ when the consequences are ____.

Answer 26

Self-Serving Bias; Behavior; Situational Factors; Negative; Dispositional Factors; Positive

Question 27

The tendency to blame external factors for our failures and take credit for our successes is referred to as the ____-____ ____. The self-serving bias appears to be relatively ____, but there are exceptions. People who are depressed, for instance, often exhibit ____ ____ — i.e., they attribute their failures to internal, stable, and global factors.

Answer 27

Self-Serving Bias; Universal; Learned Helplessness

Question 28

____ are mental shortcuts or rules-of-thumb, which people use when making attributions and other social judgments. Although heuristics allow us to reach conclusions ____, they may result in ____.

Answer 28

Heuristics; Quickly; Errors

Question 29

The ____ ____ involves basing your judgment about the likelihood that a person, object, or event belongs to a particular category on how representative (similar) the person, object, or event is to that category while ignoring probability (base rate) data. If you learn that a person is introspective, creative, and likes to work alone, you’re more likely to conclude that she’s a writer of novels than a postal worker even though you have only limited information about her and the number of postal workers in the population is much larger than the number of novelists.

Answer 29

Representative Heuristic

Question 30

The ____ ____ involves judging the likelihood or frequency of an event based on how easy it is to retrieve information about the event from long-term memory. In other words, you’ll predict that an event is more likely to occur if you’re able to recall ____ ____ of its occurrence than if you’re able to recall only ____ ____.

Answer 30

Availability Heuristic; Many Examples; One Example

Question 31

In one study, Tversky and Kahneman gave participants a list of names of famous men and women but, for some participants, the men in the list were more famous than the women while, for other participants, the women in the list were more famous than the men. Each participant was subsequently asked to estimate the number of men and women in his or her list. There were an equal number of men and women; but, consistent with the availability heuristic, participants identified the gender that had the ____ ____ (____) ____ as being more frequent.

Answer 31

Most Famous (Salient) Names; Frequent

Question 32

The ____ ____ involves using mental simulations of an event to determine the likelihood that the event will happen — i.e., if you can ____ ____ that the event will happen, you’re more likely to predict that it will happen. Use of the simulation heuristic has been linked to certain ____.

Answer 32

Simulation Heuristic; Easily Imagine; Consequences

Question 33

Medvec, Madey, and Gilovich found that Olympic athletes who had won the silver medal appeared to be less happy about their win than those who had won the bronze medal, apparently because it was easier for silver medalists to imagine ____ the ____.

Answer 33

Winning the Gold

Question 34

The ____ and ____ ____ involves using an initial value (____) as the basis for making a judgment or estimate and then making ____ up or down from that starting value. For example, if the seller of an item at a flea market tells you that he usually sells the item for $10.00, your offer will be closer to $10.00 than it would have been if the seller said he usually sells the item for $7.00.

Answer 34

Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic; Anchor; Adjustments

Question 35

Baumeister and Bushman propose that, to deal with ____ ____, the human mind often relies on ____ ____ that facilitates the quick understanding and integration of incoming information but may also lead to ____ ____ and ____.

Answer 35

Information Overload; Automatic Processing; Cognitive Errors and Biases

Question 36

The ____ ____ ____ is the tendency to rely on case-specific information and ignore or underuse base rate data when estimating the likelihood of an event or characteristic.

Answer 36

Base Rate Fallacy

Question 37

When participants in a research study were asked to estimate the likelihood that a hypothetical student will take an economics or history course and told that the overall proportion of students in these courses is .30 and .70, respectively, the participants were more likely to rely on information about the student’s ____ ____ than on the ____ ____ information. Some experts explain this phenomenon as a “____ ____” of the ____ or ____ ____, while others argue that the base rate fallacy is itself a ____ — i.e., that the research supporting it is flawed and that people do not ignore ____ ____ as often as the studies suggest.

Answer 37

Personality Traits; Base Rate; Side-Effect; Representativeness or Availability Heuristic; Fallacy; Base Rates

Question 38

The ____ ____ is the tendency to pay attention to information that confirms one’s beliefs and ignore or invalidate information that does not. The confirmation bias has been used to explain a number of phenomena including paranormal beliefs, hypochondriasis and paranoia, and the persistence of stereotypes.

Answer 38

Confirmation Bias

Question 39

The ____ ____ is the belief that two characteristics, events, or other variables are related when they actually are not. The illusory correlation is similar to the confirmation bias in terms of outcomes because it causes us to recall and pay more attention to information that ____ our ____. One explanation for this error is that it’s the result of a ____ that links the ____ ____.

Answer 39

Illusory Correlation; Confirms our Belief; Schema; Two Variables

Question 40

If you meet a politician and immediately assume that she’s dishonest, this is probably due to your schema for politicians. Another explanation is that humans underwent ____ ____ to find ____ ____ among events because such a bias would increase ____.

Answer 40

Evolutionary Selection; Casual Patterns; Survival

Question 41

The ____ ____ ____ occurs when we overestimate the degree to which the beliefs, opinions, and behaviors of others are similar to our own. As an example, Wolfson (2000) asked college students who did or did not use drugs to estimate drug use by their peers and found that students who used drugs provided significantly higher estimates of peer drug use.

Answer 41

False Consensus Effect

Question 42

The ____ ____ is the tendency to believe that the likelihood of a particular chance event is affected by the occurrence of previous events when there is actually no relationship between the events. The gambler’s fallacy is illustrated by a gambler who is convinced that a string of losses must be followed by a win and by parents who think their next child will be a girl since they’ve already had four boys and no girls.

Answer 42

Gambler’s Fallacy

Question 43

The impressions we form of others are affected by a number of factors including (1) ____ which are organized, interconnected mental networks of information that help us process and organize social information and (2) ____ which provide knowledge about the appropriate sequence of behaviors in specific social situations. Our impressions are also influenced by (3) ____ traits that carry more weight than other traits because the) provide unique information about a person and by the (4) ____ which was demonstrated by Rosenhan’s pseudopatient study.

Answer 43

(l) schemata; (2) scripts; (3) central; (4) social context

Question 44

The attributions we make about the behaviors of others often reflect the (5) ____ bias, which means that we tend to overestimate the role of (6) ____ factors when making attributions about the behaviors of other people. Research on the actor-observer effect has shown that, when making self-attributions, we tend to attribute our successes to (7) ____ factors and our failures to (8) ____ factors. This tendency is referred to as the (9) ____ bias.

Answer 44

(5) fundamental attribution; (6) dispositional; (7) dispositional; (8) situational; (9) self-serving

Question 45

Heuristics are mental shortcuts that people use when making attributions and other social judgments. The (10) ____ heuristic involves basing your judgment of a person, object, or event on how similar the person, object, or event is to the typical case while ignoring probability (base rate) data; while the (11) ____ heuristic involves judging the likelihood or frequency of an event based on how easy it is to retrieve information about the event from long-term memory.

Answer 45

(10) representativeness; (11) availability

Question 46

Several cognitive errors and biases have been identified. One of these is the (12) ____, which is the tendency to rely on case-specific information and ignore or underuse probability data when estimating the likelihood of an event or characteristic. Another is the (13) ____, which is the tendency to pay attention to information that is consistent with one’s beliefs and ignore or invalidate information that is not. The (14) ____ effect occurs when we overestimate the extent to which the attitudes and beliefs of others are similar to our own.

Answer 46

(12) base rate fallacy; (13) confirmation bias; (14) false consensus

Question 47

____ of ____ to ____ ____ investigating interpersonal relationships include affliation and attraction, sexual jealousy, emotion in relationships, and the maintenance and dissolution of relationships.

Answer 47

Issues of Interest to Social Psychologists

Question 48

____ is considered to be an innate motive that contributes to the initiation and maintenance of interpersonal relationships. Research on affiliation has confirmed that it is affected by several factors including ____, ____, and ____.

Answer 48

Affiliation; Anxiety, Arousability, and Gender

Question 49

____: To test the hypothesis that ____ increases the desire to affiliate, Schachter led research participants to believe that they would be receiving either painful shock (____-____ ____) or nonpainful shock (____-____ ____) and then asked them if they wanted to wait alone or with other participants. As predicted, more high-anxiety than low-anxiety participants chose to ____ with ____.

Answer 49

Anxiety; Anxiety; High-Anxiety Condition; Low-Anxiety Condition; Wait with Others

Question 50

In subsequent research, Schachter found that highly anxious participants preferred to wait with other highly anxious participants but, when given the choice to wait alone or with non-anxious individuals, they chose to ____ ____. Based on these results, Schachter concluded that, in anxiety-arousing conditions, ____ ____ is a more ____ ____ of ____ than ____ from ____ and that the adage “misery loves company” is better stated as “____ ____ ____ ____.”

Answer 50

Wait Alone; Social Comparison; Potent Cause of Affiliation; Relief from Discomfort; Misery Loves Miserable Company

Question 51

____: According to Johnson and colleagues, the degree to which a person’s central nervous system is ____ ____ by external stimuli (including the presence of others) affects their desire to ____. Specifically, Eysenck proposed that ____ are people who are high in arousability and are likely to avoid amating with others to keep their arousal from reaching an uncomfortable level. In contrast, ____ are low in arousability and seek affiliations with others to stimulate their arousal to an optimal level.

Answer 51

Arousability; Physiologically Aroused; Affiliate; Introverts; Extroverts

Question 52

Studies on ____ ____ in ____ have found that women ordinarily spend more time than men engaged in conversation, are more likely to talk to people of the same sex, and may affiliate more than men do in public places. In fact Taylor et al. propose that a primary stress response for women is to “____-and-____” rather than “____-or-____.”

Answer 52

Gender Differences in Affiliation; Tend-and-Befriend; Fight-or-Flight

Question 53

There is also evidence that ____ have more close friends and that female friendships depend most on ____ ____ and ____-____, while male friendships more often develop out of ____ ____. Although most of the evidence suggests that women have more ____-____ ____ ____ ____, studies show that men have greater ____ for ____-____ ____ and that male friendships endure ____ than female ____.

Answer 53

Women; Verbal Communication and Self-Disclosure; Shared Activities; Same-Sex Emotionally Intimate Relationships; Tolerance for Same-Sex Peers; Longer; Friendships

Question 54

____ (liking) is a special type of ____ and, like ____, is affected by a number of factors.

Answer 54

Attraction; Affiliation; Affiliation

Question 55

____: We tend to like ____ and intelligent people more than their incompetent and unintelligent peers, and this is especially true when the ____ person occasionally makes small blunders.

Answer 55

Competence; Competent; Competent

Question 56

____: We are generally more attracted to people who are ____ to ourselves, with ____ in attitudes being particularly important. According to Byrne’s ____ of ____, we are attracted to others who have similar attitudes because interacting with those individuals is more rewarding than interacting with people who have dissimilar attitudes and, consequently, is more likely to generate positive affect.

Answer 56

Similarity; Similar; Similarity; Law of Attraction

Question 57

____: We generally like others who like us and dislike those who dislike us. However, attraction to a person is often maximized when that person’s evaluation of us is initially negative but then becomes positive. This ____-____ ____ is most likely to occur when the person’s change in opinion is gradual and clearly reflects a true “change of heart.”

Answer 57

Reciprocity; Gain-Loss Effect

Question 58

____ in ____ ____: The studies have confirmed that men and women differ with regard to the qualities that attract them to romantic partners, with men focusing most on the ____ ____ of a potential mate and women being more interested in a potential mate’s ____ and ____. An explanation for these differences has been provided by ____ ____ ____ of ____, which emphasizes gender differences in reproductive strategies (which may or may not be consciously accessible.)

Answer 58

Attraction in Romantic Relationship; Physical Attractiveness; Status and Resources; Evolutionary Psychology Theory of Attraction

Question 59

The primary goal for men is to ____ on their ____ to the next ____ by widely dispersing their genetic material. As a result, men are attracted to young physically attractive women whose youth and beauty signal ____ and ____.

Answer 59

Pass on their Genes; Generation; Health and Fertility

Question 60

Research investigating the physical traits that men find desirable have found that these include large breasts, narrow hips, and a waist-to-hip ratio of about 0.7 (waist circumference about 70% of hip circumference), which signal the ____ ____ ____. In contrast, the primary reproductive goal for women to pass on their genes to the next generation is to invest more heavily in the ____ ____ of ____ they can ____ given the ____ ____ of ____.

Answer 60

Greatest Reproductive Potential; Limited Number of Children; Produce; Physical Restraints of Pregnancy

Question 61

Consequently, women tend to be attracted to men who have ____ ____ to ____ for ____ and their ____ and traits such as ____ and ____ ____ that help ensure that the man remain ____ to the ____.

Answer 61

Adequate Resources to Provide for Them and their Children; Loyalty and Emotional Stability; Committed to the Relationship

Question 62

Cross-cultural research has found that ____ ____ is fairly universal, although cultures may differ with regard to the ____ of ____ that elicit jealousy. Also, according to evolutionary theory, there are ____ ____ in jealousy that can be traced to differences in ____ ____.

Answer 62

Sexual Jealousy; Types of Behavior; Gender Differences; Reproductive Goals

Question 63

Buss, Larsen, Westen, and Semmelroth conclude that the major threat to a man’s reproductive goals is the chance that another man will make his wife ____ and, therefore, jealousy is elicited primarily by ____ ____. However, the major threat to a woman’s reproductive goals is the possibility that her husband will become ____ ____ with another woman and be unavailable to provide ____ to ____ ____ and ____ ____.

Answer 63

Pregnant; Sexual Infidelity; Emotionally involved; Resources to Support Her and Her Children

Question 64

Sexual jealousy in women is more likely to be provoked by ____ ____. Note that, while some studies using attitude measures support Buss et al.’s proposal, there is evidence that physiological reactions to both types of infidelity are ____ for men and women. The inconsistencies in the research have led some investigators to conclude that gender differences in sexual jealousy are affected, to some degree, by ____ ____.

Answer 64

Emotional Infidelity; Similar; Cultural Expectations

Question 65

____ in ____ ____: People often experience their strongest emotions within the context of ____ ____ ____. Berscheid’s ____-in-____ ____ addresses the events that trigger strong emotions in close relationships and proposes that there is an innate mechanism that generates emotion whenever a partner engages in behaviors that violate expectations and disrupt ongoing sequences of behaviors.

Answer 65

Emotion in Intimate Relationships; Close Interpersonal Relationships; Emotion-in-Relationship Model

Question 66

A husband is likely to have a ____ ____ ____ when he learns that his previously faithful wife is currently having an affair. Berscheid’s model also predicts that positive emotions are generally more intense in the ____ ____ of a relationship when a partner’s positive actions are still ____ and ____ than during the later stages when those actions are more ____ and, consequently, ____ ____.

Answer 66

Strong Emotional Reaction; Initial Stages; Surprising and Unexpected; Predictable; Less Rewarding

Question 67

The ____ and ____ of ____: Social exchange theory and equity theory are two of the theories that have been proposed to explain why people decide to remain in or leave a relationship.

Answer 67

Maintenance and Dissolution of Relationships

Question 68

____ ____ ____ predicts that the decision to leave a relationship depends on the relationship’s costs and rewards — i.e., we’re likely to stay in a relationship when rewards exceed costs but leave when costs are greater than rewards. There is some evidence that social exchange theory is more predictive of relationships with ____, ____, and ____ ____ than of relationships with ____ ____ and ____ ____ because, in the latter relationships, we’re less likely to expect something in return for our ____.

Answer 68

Social Exchange Theory; Strangers, Acquaintances, and Business Associates; Family Members and Close Friends; Contributions

Question 69

According to ____ ____, our perception of ____ (fairness) in a relationship is more important that the absolute magnitude of the inputs (contributions or costs) and outcomes (rewards). In other words, people consider a relationship to be ____ and are likely to stay in it when they believe their input/outcome ratio is proportional to the ____/____ ____ of the ____ ____. However, when people perceive a relationship to be ____ in terms of ____/____ ____, they experience ____ and may decide to ____.

Answer 69

Equity Theory; Equity; Equitable; Input/Outcome Ratio is Proportional; Input/Outcome Ration of the Other Person; Inequitable; Input/Outcome Ratios; Distress; Leave

Question 70

When studying differences in how people and groups are ____, it is necessary to clarify what it means for a person to be considered as such. There are two particularly relevant aspects to consider: (a) ____, which is the degree an individual may be differentiated from others; and (b) ____, the clear ____ ____ of an individual’s ____, and an ____-____ ____ to the ____ of ____.

Answer 70

Perceived; Identifiability; Personality; Internal Consistency; Identity; Individual-Level Similarity; Personality of Groups

Question 71

In addition to being very sought-after (in both others and in the self), ____ ____ is postulated as necessary for identity (e.g., moral character information is seen as essential to identity, and separate of contextual weight), as well as to perceptions of ____ ____ and ____ (e.g., people are perceived to have greater control and greater responsibility over their ____ character traits).

Answer 71

Moral Character; Trait Controllability and Responsibility; Moral

Question 72

The research in ____ ____ proposes that “____,” broadly constructed, should be of key significance in ____ ____. The weight of other character traits over warmth traits is likely to be most pronounced for ____ ____ or ____ of greater ____ or ____, where much is at ____, and where another individual may possess the opportunity to ____ or ____ a ____ in ____ ____.

Answer 72

Social Cognition; Warmth; Person Perception; Social Roles or Contexts; Importance or Intimacy; Stake; Hurt or Help a Person in Substantial Ways

Question 73

With advanced ____ and ____ ____ (ICTs), especially the internet, people and researchers see the ____ ____ in the use of this form of ____ in broadening people’s ____ ____ and participation to continue to strengthen ____ ____. As the internet allows people to communicate with family, friends, co-workers, strangers across great distances and cultures without time constraints, it strengthens people’s ____ ____ and assists them in forming ____ ____.

Answer 73

Information and Communication Technologies; Great Potential; Communication; Social Experiences; Social Ties; Social Relationships; New Relationships

Question 74

The use of the internet for ____ ____ is different from traditional face-to-face communication in enriching the quality of life.

Answer 74

Interpersonal Communication

Question 75

____ ____ does have the potential to have an ____ ____ on people’s perceived ____ ____, however, the relative lack of strong ties or in-depth quality that can result in ____ ____ cannot be the ____ ____ for the ____ ____ of ____ ____ on ____ of ____. An absence of ____ ____: lack of ____, and less demand for ____ in internet communication results in ____, ____ ____, and difficulty in building ____ ____. These are reasons why there is a ____ ____ of online communication to perceived ____ of ____.

Answer 75

Online Communication; Adverse Effect; Life Quality; Internet Communication; Sole Reason; Negative Effect of Online Communication on Quality of Life; Nonverbal Cues; Warmth; Engagement; Impersonality; Shallow Interactions; Social Support; Negative Contribution; Quality of Life

Question 76

In general, under normal circumstances, people engage in online communication in a ____-____, if not ____, manner.

Answer 76

Sub-Interpersonal; Impersonal

Question 77

Schachter’s research on affiliation demonstrated that, in anxiety-arousing situations, social (1) ____ is a more potent determinant of affiliation than relief from discomfort and that the adage “misery loves company” is more accurately stated as “misery loves company” is more accurately stated as “misery loves (2) ____.” In terms of gender, women spend more time than men in conversation, and their friendships often depend more on communication and (3) ____ than on shared activities.

Answer 77

(1) comparison; (2) miserable company; (3) self-disclosure

Question 78

We tend to be attracted to competent people, especially when they occasionally make (4) ____. According to Byrne’s law of attraction, interactions with people who have similar attitudes are more rewarding and, therefore, more likely to produce (5) ____. Research on the (6) ____ effect has shown that we are most attracted to people who initially evaluate us negatively but subsequently evaluate us positively.

Answer 78

(4) small blunders; (5) positive affect; (6) gain-loss

Question 79

According to evolutionary theory, gender differences in attraction to a potential mate and sexual jealousy are attributable to gender differences in (7) ____ goals. Consequently, with regard to sexual jealousy, men are more threatened by (8) ____ infidelity, while women are more threatened by (9) ____ infidelity.

Answer 79

(7) reproductive; (8) sexual; (9) emotional

Question 80

Berscheid’s emotion-in-relationship model predicts that, in close relationships, emotion is triggered when a partner engages in behaviors that violate expectations and disrupt ongoing (10) ____. According to social exchange theory, the decision to remain in or leave a relationship is based on the (11) ____ associated with the relationship, while equity theory proposes that this decision is related to our perception of the comparability of (12) ____ ratios.

Answer 80

(10) sequences of behavior; (11) costs and rewards; (12) input/outcome

Question 81

When considering what it means for a person to be a person, two concepts should be considered: (13) ____, which is the degree an individual may be differentiated from others; and (14) ____, the clear internal consistency of an individual’s identity, Online communication allows for opportunities to broaden and possibly strengthen social relationships, however, these interactions may be impersonal and demonstrate a lack of (15) ____.

Answer 81

(13) identifiability; (14) personality; (15) depth

Question 82

Psychologists interested in the self in ____ ____ have investigated issues related to the self-concept, self-presentation, and perceived self-control.

Answer 82

Social Context

Question 83

The ____-____ is “the sum total of beliefs that people have about themselves.” Research on the self-concept has identified its cognitive components and factors that contribute to it.

Answer 83

Self-Concept

Question 84

____-____: Current descriptions of the self-concept conceptualize it as being comprised of multiple elements that may be ____ ____ and sometimes ____ and propose that only some elements may be in ____ ____ at any particular point in time (e.g., Baumeister & Finkel, 2010). For example, Markus and her colleagues describe the self-concept as consisting of multiple core and peripheral (working) ____-____.

Answer 84

Self-Schemas; Loosely Connected; Contradictory; Conscious Awareness; Self-Schemas

Question 85

____ ____-____ are “cognitive generalizations about the self, derived from past experience, that organize and guide the processing of self-related information contained in the individual’s social experience.” Core self-schemas are relatively ____ and ____ across ____. In contrast, ____ ____-____ are embedded in core self-schemas but are more malleable and tied to immediate social conditions.

Answer 85

Core Self-Schemas; Stable and Salient; Situations; Peripheral Self-Schemas

Question 86

The multifaceted nature of the self-concept has been offered as one explanation for the ____ ____ (also known as the Forer effect), which is the tendency for people to accept vague or general descriptions as accurate descriptions of themselves. In studies on the Barnum effect, participants are given a general description in the form of a personal horoscope or a handwriting or personality analysis.

Answer 86

Barnum Effect

Question 87

Although the same description is given to all participants, the majority agree that it is a “____ ____” description of themselves. The Barnum effect has also been attributed to other factors including ____, ____ ____, and the ____-____ and ____ ____.

Answer 87

Highly Accurate; Gullibility, Selective Memory, and the Self-Serving and Confirmation Biases

Question 88

Daryl Bem’s ____-____ ____ proposes that, when internal cues are insufficient or difficult to interpret, people acquire information about themselves by observing their external behaviors and/or the context in which those behaviors occur.

Answer 88

Self-Perception Theory

Question 89

Self-perception theory is supported by Schachter and Singer’s “____ ____,” which examined the perception of emotion. Participants in this research were injected with epinephrine, a drug that produces mild physiological arousal, or a placebo, and those injected with epinephrine were assigned to one of three conditions: Participants in the ____ ____ were told what the true effects of the injection would be; those in the ____ ____ were given false information about the injection’s effects; and those in the ____ ____ were told the drug would have no side effects. Each participant was then placed in a waiting room with a ____ who had been instructed to act in either an ____ or ____ ____. While in the waiting room, participants in the ____ and ____ ____ acted much like the confederate did (angry or euphoric), whereas ____ ____ did not.

Answer 89

Epinephrine Studies; Informed Condition; Misinformed Condition; Ignorant Condition; Confederate; Angry or Euphoric Manner; Misinformed; Ignorant Conditions; Informed Participants

Question 90

According to Schachter and Singer, these (epinephrine studies) results demonstrate that there are ____ ____ ____ between ____ and that the ____ of ____ depends on a combination of ____ ____ and a ____ ____ for that ____. Consistent with self-perception theory, their research showed that, in ____ ____, people look at cues in the ____ ____ to identify their ____ ____.

Answer 90

No Physiological Differences; Emotions; Perception of Emotion; Physiological Arousal; Cognitive Label; Arousal; Ambiguous Situations; External Environment; Internal States

Question 91

Additional evidence for self-perception theory is provided by studies on the ____ ____, which predicts that, when an external reward is given to a person for performing an intrinsically rewarding activity, the person’s intrinsic interest in the activity decreases.

Answer 91

Overjustification Hypothesis

Question 92

In one study, Lepper, Greene, and Nisbett asked children in two groups to draw pictures with felt-tip markers, with children in one group being given an ____ ____ for doing so. Subsequently, children in the external reward condition showed ____ ____ in the markers than children in the no ____ ____ condition. From the perspective of self-perception theory, this result was due to the fact that children in the external reward condition attributed their use of the markers to the external reward and, as a result, stopped using them when the reward was ____.

Answer 92

External Reward; Less Interest; External Reward; Terminated

Question 93

According to ____ ____ ____, people have an innate drive to evaluate their own opinions and behaviors; and, in the absence of objective standards, they do so by comparing their opinions and behaviors to those of other people. Social comparisons most often involve people who are ____ in terms of attitudes, performance, and other attributes.

Answer 93

Social Comparison Theory; Similar

Question 94

____ (____) ____ are sometimes made, especially when evaluating an ____ ____ or ____. When judging our own level of anger, for instance, we’re likely to compare ourselves to others we consider to be even ____ ____.

Answer 94

Dissimilar (Downward) Comparisons; Undesirable Behavior or Condition; More Angry

Question 95

____-____ ____ predicts that, once a person’s self-concept is formed, the person seeks to maintain it by using cognitive and behavioral strategies that are designed to obtain information that is consistent with that self-concept.

Answer 95

Self-Verification Theory

Question 96

People tend to recall and pay attention to information that ____ their ____-____ and prefer to interact with others who provide information that ____ their ____-____. With regard to the latter, Swann, Hixon, and De La Ronde found that, in close relationships, partners with a negative self-view reported higher levels of ____ to the ____ when their partners confirmed their ____ ____-____.

Answer 96

Confirms their Self-Concepts; Confirms their Self-Views; Commitment to the Relationship; Negative Self-Perceptions

Question 97

____-____ is also known as impression management and refers to the strategies that people use to influence how others perceive them.

Answer 97

Self-Presentation

Question 98

According to Snyder, people differ in terms of ____-____, or their need and ability to manage the impressions that others form of them. People ____ in ____-____ are most concerned about their “____ ___” and, consequently, strive to match their attitudes and behaviors to the situation. These individuals are exceptionally good at determining what behaviors, attitudes, and values are ____ ____ or ____ in a situation and at concealing their ____ ____ and ____.

Answer 98

Self-Monitoring; High in Self-Monitoring; Public Self; Socially Desirable or Expected; True Feelings and Opinions

Question 99

In contrast, people ____ in ____-____ are guided primarily by their own beliefs, values, and other internal cues and attempt to alter the situation to match their “____ ____.”

Answer 99

Low in Self-Monitoring; Private Self

Question 100

____-____ occurs when people attempt to protect their self-esteem and public image by engaging in behaviors that will provide them with an excuse for an anticipated failure. For example, a student who is concerned about failing an important exam might stay up the night before the exam partying with friends instead of studying so that, if she obtains a low score on the test, she can attribute it to the party rather than her lack of ability or knowledge.

Answer 100

Self-Handicapping

Question 101

The ____ of ____-____ refers to the expectation that we can perform behaviors that will produce desired outcomes. Characteristics that have been linked to perceived self-control include ____-____ ____, ____ of ____, and ____.

Answer 101

Perception of Self-Control; Self-Efficacy Beliefs, Locas of Control, and Hardiness

Question 102

As defined by Bandura, ____-____ refers to a person’s sense of competence and effectiveness. ____ ____ of ____-____ have been associated with a number of ____ including higher levels of productivity and academic achievement, reduced vulnerability to depression and anxiety, and better response to treatment for health-related problems.

Answer 102

Self-Efficacy; High Levels of Self-Efficacy; Benefits

Question 103

____ of ____ refers to the extent to which people believe that personal outcomes are controlled by internal versus external factors. People with an ____ ____ of ____ consider outcomes to be under the control of their own decisions and behaviors, while those with an ____ ____ of ____ consider outcomes to be controlled by external forces such as luck, other people, or the nature of the situation.

Answer 103

Locus of Control; Internal Locas of Control; External Locas of Control

Question 104

The research indicates that an internal locus of control is associated with ____ ____ ____, including higher levels of academic achievement and job performance, higher levels of optimism and inquisitiveness, and a greater willingness to participate in preventive health measures.

Answer 104

More Desirable Outcomes

Question 105

____: Kobasa and her colleagues conducted research to determine why some people are more ____ than others when faced with ____. The results indicated that the personality trait of ____ acts as a protective factor and has three primary characteristics: ____ (a sense of purpose and involvement in one’s relationships and life events), ____ (an openness to new experiences and change), and ____ (the belief that one can influence or manage life events).

Answer 105

Hardiness; Resilient; Stress; Hardiness; Commitment; Challenge; Control

Question 106

According to these Kobasa and her colleagues, ____ reduces the ____ ____ of ____ ____ ____ by facilitating ____ ____, which involves directly altering those events or thinking about them more optimistically and using social support and other resources.

Answer 106

Hardiness; Negative Effects of Stressful Life Events; Transformational Coping

Question 107

Markus and her colleagues (1977) describe the self-concept as consisting of multiple (1) ____ and peripheral (working) self-schemas, and the multifaceted nature of the self-concept has been offered as one explanation for the (2) ____, which is the tendency for people to accept vague or general descriptions as accurate descriptions of themselves.

Answer 107

(1) core; (2) Barnum effect

Question 108

According to (3) ____ theory, when internal cues are insufficient or difficult to interpret, we identify our internal state by observing our (4) ____ and/or the context in which they occur. This theory is supported by Schachter and Singer’s epinephrine studies in which participants who were either (5) ____ or ignorant about the effects of the drug acted much like the confederate did.

Answer 108

(3) self-perception; (4) external behaviors; (5) misinformed

Question 109

Similarly, research on the (6) ____ hypothesis found that, when children were given an external reward for participating in an activity, they were subsequently (7) ____ interested in the activity when the reward was terminated.

Answer 109

(6) overjustification; (7) less

Question 110

Social comparison theory predicts that we evaluate our behaviors and attitudes by comparing them to those of other people, most often people who we believe are (8) ____ to us. Research on (9) ____ theory confirms that we generally prefer feedback about ourselves that is consistent with our self-concept. People differ with regard to their level of self-monitoring: (10) ____ self-monitors are good at identifying what behaviors are expected of them and behave in ways that are consistent with those expectations.

Answer 110

(8) similar; (9) self-verification; (10) High

Question 111

Finally, (11) ____ refers to a person’s sense of competence and effectiveness, while (12) ____ refers to the extent to which people believe that personal outcomes are controlled by internal versus external factors.

Answer 111

(11) self-efficacy; (12) locus of control