Early Influences on Development Flashcards
Human development is viewed by most developmental psychologists as being due to a combination of ____ and ____ ____, and the current nature-nature debate focuses on the relative contributions of these factors and how they ____ to ____ ____.
Genetic and Environmental Factors; Interact to Produce Behavior
Some experts point out that the relative relative importance of heredity and the environment ____ at various points in the ____, with genetic factors being most critical during the ____ ____ of ____ and environmental factors predominating during ____ ____. Consequently, as people age, they become more ____ as their ____ becomes less the consequence of ____ and more the result of a wide range of ____ ____.
Differs; Lifespan; Early Stages of Development; Later Stages; Diverse; Behaviors; Heredity; Environmental Influences
The ____ of ____: most traits are ____, which means that they are influenced by multiple genes. Height, weight, intelligence, and personality are ____ ____. Other characteristics are the result of a ____ ____ of ____ that contains a ____ ____ or two ____ ____.
The Role of Heredity; Polygenic; Polygenic Traits; Single Pair of Genes; Dominant Gene or Two Recessive Genes
When a trait is due to a dominant gene, a child who is either ____ (Has inherited the gene from both parents) or ____ (has inherited the gene from only one parent) will exhibit that ____. Physical traits that require only a ____ ____ ____ include brown eyes, dark hair, and farsightedness.
Homozygous; Heterozygous; Trait; Single Dominant Gene
When a trait is due to a recessive gene, a child must be ____ regarding that gene to display that trait. Traits resulting from a ____ of ___ ____ include green, hazel, and blue eyes, blonde hair, and near sightedness. (Note that the alternative forms of a gene (genes for blue or green eyes) are referred to by biologists as ____.)
Homozygous; Pair of Recessive Genes; Alleles
The contribution of heredity to an observed characteristic is expressed in terms of ____ ____, which indicates the extent to which ____ varies within a group of people as the result of differences in ____.
Heritability Estimate; Phenotype; Genotype
____ refers to a person’s genetic inheritance, while ____ refers to their observed characteristics, which are due to a combination of heredity and environment. As an example, a person whose parents are both very tall maybe genetically predisposed to be taller-than-average but end up shorter than his genetic makeup dictates due to illness or poor diet.
Genotype; Phenotype
The ____ of the ____: the impact of the envelopment is I research showing that ____ accounts for only about _% of ____ for many ____.
The Role of the Environment; Heredity; 50% of Variability; Characteristics
____ ____ model: ____ described development as involving interactions between the ____ and their ____ or ____, and his ____ ____ describes the context in terms of five environmental systems or levels.
Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model; Bronfenbrenner; Individual; Context or Environment; Ecological Model
The ____ is the child’s immediate environment and includes face to face relationships with the home, school, and neighborhood. The mesosystems refer to interactions between components of the micro system, such as the influence of family factors on the child behavior at school.
Microsystem
The ____ refers to interactions between components of the microsystem, such as the influence of family factors on the child’s behavior at school.
Mesosystem
The ____ consists of elements in the broader environment that affect the child’s immediate environment and includes the parents’ workplace, the school board, community agencies, local industry, and the mass media.
Exosystem
The ____ is comprised of such overreaching environmental influences as cultural beliefs and practices, economic conditions, and political ideologies.
Macrosystem
The ____ system consists of environmental events that occur over and individual’s lifespan and impact the individual in ways that depend on their circumstances and developmental stage, such as the immediate and long-term effects of change and family structure or socio-economic status.
Chronosystem
____ and ____: the long-term impact of environmental factors that place infants and young children at high risk has been explored by several investigators. Rutter (1985) proposed that the greater the number of risk factors a baby is exposed to, the greater the risk for ____ ____.
Risk and Resilience; Negative Outcomes
In one study Rutter found that psychiatric risk for children increased from _% for those with ____ or ____ risk factors to _% for those with four or more risk factors. Rudder concluded that the following six family characteristics known as ____ ____, are particularly accurate predictors of child psychopathology.
2%; One or No; 21%; Four More Risk Factors; Rutter’s Indicators
Rutter’s Indicators
- severe marital discord, low socioeconomic status, overcrowding or large family size, parental criminality, maternal psychopathology, and placement of the child outside of the home.
In their longitudinal city of high-risk infants on the island of Kauai, Warner and her colleagues found that, while infants who experience significant prenatal and perinatal stress had more ____ and ____ ____ than infants who did not, the differences between two groups of infants ____ ____.
Physical and Cognitive Difficulties; Declined Overtime
Positive outcomes for high-risk babies were more likely when they experienced fewer ____ ____ ____ such as more negative effects were associated with chronic poverty, family instability, and maternal health problems; he had an ____ ____ marked by a high degree of social responsivity, good communication skills, and consistent eating and sleeping patterns; see we’re provided with ____ ___ from a parent or other caregiver. Such findings were important because they suggest that high risk children demonstrate ____ ____ and that the negative effects of parental and perinatal stress are not always ____.
Stressors Following Birth; Easy Temperament; Stable Support; Considerable Resilience; Irreversible
____-____ ____: Several explanations of how genetic and environmental factors combine to produce an individual’s attributes have been proposed.
Heredity-Environment Interactions
____ ____: Some experts contend that there is a ____ of ____ for certain traits and that an individual’s status within that range depends on environmental factors. For instance, as previously noted, a person may be shorter than his or her genetic predisposition dictates due to illness or poor diet. According to this explanation, genetic make-up determines whether the reaction range is ____ or ____.
Reaction Range; Range of Reaction; Narrow or Broad
A child born with a defect that produces mild cognitive impairment will have a ____ ____ ____ than a child born with a defect that causes severe impairment and will, therefore, have a g-eater response to an enriched environment. Note that the term “____” is used to describe characteristics in which genotype restricts phenotype to a small number of possible outcomes.
Broader Reaction Range; Canalization
____-____ ____: This explanation proposes that a person’s genetic make-up influences the environments the person is exposed to and that exposure to those environments reinforces the person’s genetic make-up. There are three types of genotype-environment correlation.
Genotype-Environment Correlation
Occurs when children inherit genes from their parents that predispose them toward particular traits, and the parents provide the children with environments that encourage the development of those traits. For instance, the children of athletic parents are likely to be genetically predisposed to athleticism and will also be provided by their parents with a sports-oriented environment that encourages their interest and participation in sports.
Passive genotype-environment correlation
Occurs when a child’s genetic make-up evokes reactions from parents and others that reinforce his or her genetic make-up. As an example, preschool children who are genetically predisposed to be cooperative and attentive will have more positive instructional interactions with teachers than will uncooperative, inattentive children.
Evocative genotype-environment correlation
____ ____-____ ____correlation is also referred to as ____-____. It occurs when children actively seek out experiences that are consistent with their genetic predispositions. Children who are extroverted, for instance, will seek out socially stimulating activities, while children who are introverted will actively avoid those activities.
Active Genotype-Environment Correlation; Niche-Picking
According to Scarr and McCartney, the relative importance of the three types of genotype-environment correlation ____ ____ ____: The importance of the passive and evocative types is greatest during ____ and ____ ____ when children have little control over their environments, while the active type becomes increasingly important as children become ____ ____.
Changes Over Time; Infancy and Early Childhood; More Independent
____: The epigenetic explanation describes the relationship between genetic and environmental influences as bidirectional and ongoing. From this perspective, each stage of development is affected by ____ ____, ____, ____, and ____ ____ and, in turn, affects ____ ____.
Epigenesis; Previous Genetic, Neural, Behavioral, and Environmental Interactions; Future Interactions
During prenatal development, malnutrition or exposure to certain toxins may influence the functioning of genes that control temperament, and the child’s temperament then affect his parents’ behaviors which, in turn, will affect the child’s attachment style and other characteristics, and so on.
An example of Epigenesis
Several theories of lifespan development have been influenced by ____ and ____ ____, which have their historical roots in ____ ____ of ____ ____.
Ethology and Evolutionary Psychology; Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection
____ is the branch of the zoology that is dedicated to the study of animal behavior in natural habitats. ____ ____ are based on the assumptions that “all animal species are born with a number of ‘biologically programmed’ behaviors that are (I) products of ____ and (2) are ____ in that they contribute to ____.”
Ethology; Ethological Theories; Evolution; Adaptive; Survival
The influence of ethology is illustrated by the interest of developmental psychologists in ____ ____, which are specific, predetermined periods of time during biological maturation when an organism is particularly sensitive to certain stimuli that can have either a positive or negative impact on development.
Critical Periods
The zoologist Konrad Lorenz found that goslings imprint on the first moving object they see during the first two or three days after birth (ordinarily their mothers) and subsequently follow and stay near to that object, apparently because doing so helps ensure their survival. For newly hatched goslings, the first few days following birth is a ____ ____ for imprinting.
Critical Period
Developmental psychologists have identified critical periods for some aspects of ____ ____ in ____, but there is less certainty about their ____ for other aspects of behavior. Consequently, most experts agree that, for many human behaviors (e.g., attachment and language acquisition), there are ____ ____ rather than critical periods.
Physical Development in Humans; Existence; Sensitive Peiords
Sensitive periods are ____ in ____ and more ____ than critical periods, and they are not tied as closely to ____ ____ or ____ ____.
Longer in Duration; Flexible; Chronological Age or Maturational Stage
Like ethology, ____ ____ focuses on how natural selection predisposes organisms toward certain behaviors. However, while ethologists focus on adaptive instincts and drives, evolutionary psychologists focus on ____ and ____ ____ that helped our ancestors ____ and ____. Several developmental psychologists have adopted an ____ ____. For example, the evolutionary developmental psychologist Bjorklund and Pellegrini (2002) have proposed the following hypotheses about human evolution.
Evolutionary Psychology; Mental and Emotional Adaptations; Survive and Reproduce; Evolutionary Approach
Evolutionary Psychology; Mental and Emotional Adaptations; Survive and Reproduce; Evolutionary Approach
Develop a Large Brain; Complexities of Human Society
Many childhood behaviors were selected because they prepared children for ____ (gender differences in play activities reflect inherited differences in activity level and personality, and childhood play activities help prepare children for adult roles).
Adulthood
Some childhood behaviors were selected to be ____ at specific points in ____ rather than as ____ for adulthood (certain infant behaviors were selected because they foster attachment to caregivers and help ensure an infant’s survival).
Adaptive; Development; Preparation
Many psychological mechanisms are ____-____ and were selected to help our ____ deal with the specific types of problems they encountered in their ____ (the mind consists of specific information-processing mechanisms for food acquisition, mate selection, parenting).
Domain-Specific; Ancestors; Environments
____ ____ that were adaptive for our prehistoric ancestors may not be adaptive in ____ ____ (the tendency for ancestors living in food-scarce environments to gorge when food became available may contribute to obesity in current times when food is plentiful).
Evolved Behaviors; Contemporary Society
____ of ____ ____: Prenatal development is divided into three stages: (a) The first two weeks make up the ____ ____. During this stage, the fertilized ovum is called a ____. (b) The ____ ____ ____ the beginning of the third week through the eighth week. (c) The ____ ____ begins at the onset of the ninth week and continues until birth.
Stages of Prenatal Development; Germinal Stage; Zygote; Embryonic Stage Encompasses; Fetal Stage
Causes of ____ ____ include chromosomal disorders, exposure to teratogens, and poor maternal health.
Birth Defects
____ ____: All human cells (except the sperm and ovum) contain _ chromosomes that are arranged in _ pairs. Twenty-two pairs of chromosomes are referred to as ____, while the 23rd pair contains the ____ ____. In females, the sex chromosomes are the same and are designated “__”; while, in males, the sex chromosomes differ, and are designated “__.”
Chromosomal Disorders; 46; 23; Autosomes; Sex Chromosomes; XX; XY
When a disorder is carried on an autosome, it is referred to as an ____ ____; when it is carried on a sex chromosome, it is referred to as ____-____. Disorders related to the chromosomes are the result of the inheritance of a ____ ____ ____ or ___ ____ ____ or to a ____ ____.
Autosomal Disorder; Sex-Linked; Single Dominant Gene; Two Recessive Genes; Chromosomal Abnormality
____ ____ ____ are due to the inheritance of a single dominant gene from one parent. Huntington’s disease is an autosomal dominant gene disorder and is characterized by a combination of psychiatric, cognitive, and motor symptoms.
Dominant Gene Disorders
____ ____ ____ are due to the inheritance of a pair of recessive genes (one from each parent). Examples of recessive gene disorders include cystic fibrosis, sickle cell disease, Tay-Sachs disease, and ____.
Recessive Gene Disorders; Phenylketonuria (PKU)
People with PKU lack an ____ needed to ____ ____, an ____ ____ found in milk, eggs, bread, and other foods. Beginning a diet low in ____ soon after birth prevents the ____ ____ ____ that can accompany this disorder.
Enzyme; Metabolize Phenylalanine; Amino Acid; Phenylalanine; Severe Intellectual Disability
____ ____ include a variation in the number of chromosomes and an alteration in the structure of chromosomes. Disorders due to a variation in ____ ____ (____) include Down syndrome. Klinefelter syndrome, and Turner syndrome.
Chromosomal Abnormalities; Chromosome Number (Aneuploidy)
____ ____ is an autosomal disorder that is caused by the presence of an extra chromosome 21. It is characterized by intellectual disability, retarded physical and motor development, distinctive physical features, and increased susceptibility to Alzheimer’s disease, leukemia. and heart defects. There is some evidence that the risk for giving birth to a baby with Down syndrome increases as the ____ (and possibly the ____) ____ ____.
Down Syndrome; Mother’s (and possible the Father’s) Age Increases
Klinefelter syndrome and Turner syndrome are caused by an abnormality in the number of ____ ____. ____ ____ occurs in males and is due to the presence of two or more X chromosomes along with a single Y chromosome. A male with this disorder has a small penis and testes, develops breasts during puberty, has limited interest in sexual activity, is often sterile, and may have learning disabilities.
Sex Chromosomes; Klinefelter Syndrome
____ ____ occurs in females and is caused by the presence of a single X chromosome. Females with Turner syndrome are short in stature; have drooping eyelids, a webbed neck, and other characteristic physical features; have retarded or absent development of the secondary sex characteristics; and may exhibit certain cognitive deficits (impaired visual-spatial, executive, and social-cognitive functioning).
Turner Syndrome
Alterations in chromosome structure include
deletions, translocations, and inversion
A ____ occurs when part of a chromosome is missing. ____-____ ____ is caused by a chromosomal deletion. Children with this disorder have some degree of intellectual disability, are obese, and may exhibit obsessive-compulsive behaviors.
Deletion; Prader-Willi Syndrome
An ____ occurs when a chromosome breaks in two places and the segment formed by the breaks inverts (turns upside down) and reattaches to the chromosome. Inversions may be ____ but, in humans, usually do not affect ____.
Inversion; Inherited; Phenotype
An ____ occurs when a chromosome breaks in two places and the segment formed by the breaks inverts (turns upside down) and reattaches to the chromosome. Inversions may be ____ but, in humans, usually do not affect ____.
Inversion; Inherited; Phenotype
____ are substances that cause birth defects in the developing fetus and include drugs, chemicals, and certain maternal conditions. The different organs are most susceptible to the effects of teratogens at different times, but, overall, exposure during the ____ ____ (____ _ ____ _) is most likely to cause major structural abnormalities.
Teratogens; Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3 through 8)
While the ____ ____ ____ is vulnerable to the effects of teratogens throughout prenatal development, major damage is most likely to occur when exposure occurs between the ____ of the ____ ____ though the ____ of the ____ ____ following conception.
Central Nervous System; Beginning of the Third Week; Middle of the Sixth Week
Prenatal exposure to ____ can cause ____ ____ ____ ____ which encompasses a range of conditions that involve largely irreversible physical, behavioral, and/or cognitive abnormalities.
Alcohol; Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)
____ ____ ____ is the most severe form of FASD and may result when the mother drinks heavily every day or nearly every day or engages in binge drinking, especially during the second half of the first trimester. It is characterized by facial anomalies; retarded physical growth; heart, kidney, and liver defects; vision and hearing impairments; cognitive deficits; and behavioral problems (e.g., hyperactivity, impulsivity, social withdrawal).
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FAS)
Alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND) and alcohol-related birth defects (ARBD) are
less severe forms of FASD and were previously referred to as fetal alcohol effects (FES).
____ is characterized by cognitive deficits and behavioral problems without prominent facial anomalies, retarded physical growth, or physical defects, while ____ involves physical defects (e.g., heart and kidney problems, vision and hearing impairments) without other prominent symptoms.
ARND; ARBD
The brain regions most likely to be affected by prenatal exposure to alcohol depend on several factors including the ____ of ____ ____ by the ____ and the ____ of ____ when ____ ____. However, the regions most likely to be affected include the _________________.
Amount of Alcohol Consumed by the Mother; Stage of Pregnancy when Exposure Occurs; corpus callosum, hippocampus, hypothalamus, cerebellum, basal ganglia, and frontal lobes.
____ use by a pregnant woman increases the risk for spontaneous abortion and stillbirth. Infants born to cocaine users are at high risk for SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome), seizures, low birthweight, and reduced head circumference. They often exhibit tremors, an exaggerated startle response, a high-pitched cry, sleep and feeding difficulties, and developmental delays, and they tend to be irritable and difficult to comfort, though the long-term effects of prenatal cocaine exposure are ____, it appears that ____ and ____ ____ may persist at least into the ____ ____ ____.
Cocaine; Uncertain; Cognitive and Behavior Problems; Early School Years
____ ____ is associated with placental abnormalities that can cause fetal death and stillbirth. Infants born to mothers who ____ are at higher risk for low birthweight, SIDS, and respiratory diseases, and may have emotional and social disturbances and cognitive deficits. Exposure to lead during prenatal development is associated with a low birthweight and intellectual disability.
Cigarette Smoking; Smoke
Exposure to ____ during prenatal development is associated with a low birthweight and intellectual disability.
Lead
____ ____: A variety of infections, diseases, and other conditions that affect a pregnant woman also have an impact on the developing embryo and fetus.
Maternal Health
If a pregnant woman is infected with ____, especially during the first trimester. the infant is at high risk for heart defects, blindness, deafness. and intellectual disability.
Rubella
____ ____ occurs when ___, a type of herpes virus, is passed from an infected pregnant woman to her fetus through the placenta.
Congenital Cytomegalovirus (CMV); (CMV)
Approximately 1% of all newborns are congenitally infected with CMV; and about 10% of these newborns have symptoms at birth (low birthweight, petechial rash, microencephaly, enlarged liver and spleen, retinal inflammation, and calcium deposits in the brain), while 20 to 30% die perinatally. In addition, 80 to 90% of symptomatic newborns who survive and 10 to 15% of infected but asymptomatic newborns develop neurological symptoms in the first few months to years of life. The most common symptoms of congenital CMV are some degree of
intellectual disability and hearing and visual impairments.
The transmission of the ____ ____ ____ from an infected mother to her child can occur during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding. Women who are ___-____ have a 20 to 30% chance of transmitting the virus during pregnancy but taking a combination of three or more antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy may reduce the risk to less than 1%. About 20% of infected infants who do not receive treatment exhibit symptoms during the first two years of life, and the remaining 80% develop symptoms by age three or later.
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV); HIV-Positive
The first signs of HIV infection include slowed growth and development, increased susceptibility to bacterial infections, and oral candidiasis. Later, these children have immunologic abnormalities and delays in physical and cognitive development. With ____ ____ (antiretroviral drugs plus antibiotics), up to _% of infected infants survive beyond age _, with many surviving until ____ or ____ ____.
Drug Therapy; 50%; 10; Adolescence or Young Adulthood
____ during prenatal development is associated with miscarriage, stillbirth, and low birth weight and may result in suppression of the immune system, intellectual disability, and other serious problems. ____ ____ in the ____ ____ (especially protein deficiency) is particularly detrimental for the ____ ____ and can lead to a reduced number of neurons, reduced myelination, and neurotransmitter abnormalities. A lack of ____ ____ during prenatal development can result in spina bifida or other neural tube defect.
Malnutrition; Severe Malnutrition; Third Trimester; Developing Brain; Folic Acid
If a person experiences severe or prolonged emotional ____ during pregnancy, she is at higher risk for miscarriage, painful labor, and premature delivery. and her baby is more likely to have a low birthweight, to be hyperactive and irritable, and to exhibit irregular feeding, sleeping, and bowel habits. The effects of ____ may be reduced when the woman has adequate social and ____ ____ ____ to and ____ their ____.
Stress; Stress; Social and Personal Support Prior to and During their Pregnancy
____ and ____-for-____ ____ ____: An infant born less than _ ____ after conception is considered premature or preterm. The risk for prematurity has been linked to several factors including ______________.
Premature and Small-for-Gestational Age Infants; 37 Weeks; low socioeconomic status, teen mothers, malnutrition, and drug use.
Most premature infants now ____, especially those with a birthweight of at least 1500 grams (3.3 pounds); and, in the absence of significant ____ and with appropriate medical attention and a ____ ____, premature infants often catch up to their ___-____ ____ in terms of ____, ____, and ____ ____ by ___ or ___ ____ of ____.
Survive; Abnormalities; Medical Attention; Supportive Environment; Non-Premature Peers; Cognitive, Language, and Social Skills; Two or Three Years of Age
Data collected by the National Center for Health Statistics indicate that ____ and ____ ____ rates in the United States peaked in 2006 but have since ____ and that, since 1981, preterm and low birthweight rates have been consistently higher for ____ ____ ____ than for ____ or ____ ____.
Preterm and Low Birthweight; Declined; African American Mothers; White or Hispanic Mothers
Data collected by the National Center for Health Statistics indicate that ____ and ____ ____ rates in the United States peaked in 2006 but have since ____ and that, since 1981, preterm and low birthweight rates have been consistently higher for ____ ____ ____ than for ____ or ____ ____.
Preterm and Low Birthweight; Declined; African American Mothers; White or Hispanic Mothers
When a newborn’s weight is below the _ ____ for theri gestational age, the infant is ____-for-____ ____. The consequence of being SGA may be more serious than being ____.
10th Percentile; Small-for-Gestational Age (SGA); Premature
Regardless of gestational age at birth, SGA infants have developed
at a less-than-normal rate and, as a result, are at high risk for asphyxia during birth, respiratory disease, hypoglycemia, and other physical problems as well as learning disabilities and ADHD.
____ ____ ____: During the birth process, ____ ____ can be caused by several factors including a twisted umbilical cord or the sedatives given to the mother. ____ ____ of anoxia include delayed motor and cognitive development, intellectual disability, ands in severe cases, cerebral palsy.
Complications During Birth; Prolonged Anoxia (Oxygen Shortage); Potential Consequences
When an infant is exposed to ____ ____ _ ____ the ____ ____, there is a high risk for death, brain damage, or blindness. Consequently, it is common practice to deliver babies through cesarean section when the mother is infected with the ____ ____.
Herpes Simplex 2 During the Birth Process; Cesarean Section; Herpes Virus
Some traits are the result of multiple genes, while others are attributable to a single pair of genes that contain a single dominant gene or two 1) ____ genes. For example, brown eyes and dark hair require 2) ____ , while green or blue eyes and blond hair require 3) ____. The contribution of heredity to an observed characteristic can be expressed in terms of a heritability estimate. which indicates the extent to which phenotypes vary Within groups as the result of differences in 4) ____.
(1) recessive; (2) a single dominant gene; (3) a pair of recessive genes; (4) genotype
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model distinguishes between five contexts that influence development — microsystem, 5) ____ exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. Rutter identified several factors (indicators) that increase a child’s risk for psychopathology, i.e., severe 6) ____ low SES, large family size, parental 7) ____ maternal psychopathology. and placement of the child outside the home. Research investigating the impact of early stress on development suggests that high-risk babies are less likely to have negative outcomes when the babies experience fewer stressors following birth and have an easy temperament marked by a high degree of 8) ____ and good communication skills.
(5) mesosystem; (6) marital discord; (7) criminality; (8) social responsivity
Three types of genotype-environment correlation have been proposed to explain how genetic and environmental factors combine to produce an individual’s attributes: passive, 9) ____ and active. Active genotype-environmental correlation is also known as 10) ____ and occurs when children seek out experiences that are consistent with their genetic predispositions.
(9) evocative; (10) niche-picking
In contrast to critical periods, 11) ____ periods are more flexible and longer in duration. Birth defects are caused by a number of factors. PKU is due to the presence of a pair of 12) ____ Down syndrome is the result of an extra 13) ____, 14) ¬¬____ syndrome is caused by the presence of two or more X chromosomes along with the single Y chromosome, and Prader-Willi syndrome is caused by a chromosomal 15) ____.
11) sensitive; (12) recessive genes; (13) number 21 chromosome; (14) Klinefelter; ( 15) deletion
The critical period for teratogens varies from organ to organ but, overall, exposure during the 16) ____ stage is most likely to cause major structural abnormalities. Alcohol consumption by a pregnant woman can cause 17) ____, which encompasses a range of conditions that involve largely irreversible physical, behavioral, and/or cognitive abnormalities. 18) ____ use by a pregnant woman increases the risk for stillbirth, SIDS, seizures, low birthweight, an exaggerated startle response, and developmental delays. The most common symptoms of congenital CMV are some degree of 19) ____ and hearing and vision impairments. Prenatal malnutrition is associated with a number of abnormalities, with severe 20) ____ deficiency during the third trimester being especially detrimental for the developing brain. Prolonged 21) ____ during the birth process can result in delayed motor and cognitive development, intellectual disability, and, in severe cases, cerebral palsy.
(16) embryonic; ( 17) fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD); (18) Cocaine; (19) intellectual disability; (20) protein; (21) anoxia
