Cognitive Learning Theories

Question 1

The key characteristic of the learning theories classified as “cognitive” are their

Answer 1

stress on the internal though processes that occur during learning and their rejection of the notion that external reinforcement is a necessary condition for learning to occur.

Question 2

____ proposed that learning often takes place without being manifested in performance improvements, i.e., learning can be latent.

Answer 2

Tolman

Question 3

In one of the original studies on ____ ____, Tolman and Honzik (1930) had three groups of rats run a maze once a day for several weeks: Group A rats always found food in the maze’s goal box. Group B rats never found food, and Group C rats found no food until the 11th and subsequent days. As expected, during the first 10 days, Group A rats outperformed Group B and Group C rats who performed similarly. However, after the 11th day, the performance of Group C rats was superior to that of Group A rats. Tolman concluded that the Group C rats had learned something about the maze during the first 10 days (they had formed “_________ ______”) without being reinforced for doing so. He argued that these results show that latent learning occurs and that reinforcement may be an important factor in the performance of a response but is not necessary for the learning of that response.

Answer 3

Latent Learning; cognitive maps

Question 4

Gestalt psychology includes a model of learning that incorporates the role of _________ ________ ________, and this model was the basis for a series of studies conducted by ____ (1925) with chimpanzees.

Answer 4

internal cognitive processes; Kohler

Question 5

In one study, Kohler gave a caged chimpanzee named Sultan two sticks that could be joined together to make a longer stick. A banana, placed outside Sultan’s cage, could be reached only when the sticks were joined. After several unsuccessful attempts to reach the banana with only one stick, Sultan paused for a brief period and then suddenly joined the sticks together and used the longer stick to reach the banana. Kohler argued that this behavior demonstrates that learning can be the result of ______ (an “aha” experience), and he proposed that ____ ____ reflects an internal cognitive restructuring of the perceptual field (environment) that enhances the organism’s ability to achieve its goals.

Answer 5

Insight; Insight Learning

Question 6

Bandura’s (1986) theory of ____ ____ is also known as social learning theory and social cognitive theory.

Answer 6

Observational Learning

Question 7

Observational Learning proposes that most complex human behaviors are learned by __________ another person perform those behaviors and that observational learning is useful not only for __________ but also for_______ or _______ existing ones.

Answer 7

Observing; teaching new behaviors; enhancing; inhibiting

Question 8

Bandura’s theory was originally derived from studies in which boys and girls observed an adult model act either aggressively or nonaggressively toward an inflated clown (“Bobo”) doll. Subsequently, children who observed the aggressive model displayed _______ toward the doll, while children who had viewed the nonaggressive model did not exhibit such behaviors.

Answer 8

aggressive behaviors

Question 9

Bandura’s research also found that, among children who observed the aggressive model a) ____ were more likely to imitate a male model while ______ were more likely to imitate a female model, b) boys and girls imitated the _____ _______behaviors of the model to a similar degree but boys were more likely than girls to imitate ______ ______ behaviors, and c) providing ________ for imitating the aggressive model reduced the gender difference in the imitation of physically aggressive behaviors.

Answer 9

Boys; girls; verbally aggressive; physically aggressive; incentives

Question 10

Observational Learning Processes: Based on the results of his research, Bandura concluded that observational learning reflects an ________ __ _______ that involves four processes.

Answer 10

alteration in cognition

Question 11

The learner attends to and accurately perceives the modeled behavior

Answer 11

Attentional Processes

Question 12

The learner symbolically processes the modeled behavior in memory via visual imagery or verbal coding.________ is maximized through cognitive rehearsal.

Answer 12

Retention Processes; Retention

Question 13

The learner must be able to accurately reproduce and rehearse the modeled behavior. ________ is enhanced through practice and performance feedback.

Answer 13

Production Processes; production

Question 14

While learning can occur without reinforcement, performance requires __________. ________ is enhanced when the learner is reinforced, but reinforcement may be either internal (self-reinforcement), vicarious, or external.

Answer 14

Motivational Processes; Motivation; motivation

Question 15

Observers are more likely to imitate a model when a) the model is high in ______ ; b) the model is _____ to the observer, especially in terms of age and gender; c) the model’s behavior is _______ to the observer’s needs and goals; and d) the model has been ________ for engaging in the behavior (which is referred to as ________ ________).

Answer 15

Model Characteristics; status, prestige, or expertise; similar; visible, salient, and relevant; reinforced; vicarious reinforcement

Question 16

When modeling is used to treat _______, coping models who initially exhibit apprehension but then overcome their fears and perform the desired behavior are more effective than mastery models who initially engage in the behavior without fear.

Answer 16

Phobic Reactions

Question 17

Bandura’s research also found that modeling is most effective when it is combined with ____ ____. This procedure is known as participant modeling and consists of having the learner observe the model perform the behavior and then perform the behavior themselves with assistance from the model.

Answer 17

Guided Participation

Question 18

In a study investigating the use of observational learning for the treatment of snake phobia, for instance, it was found that live modeling with _________ was superior to __________ (observation of a filmed model) or systematic desensitization.

Answer 18

Guided Participation; Symbolic Modeling

Question 19

____-____ is a central concept in Bandura’s theory and refers to a person’s beliefs about their ability to perform a behavior or task or to achieve certain goals.

Answer 19

Self-Efficacy

Question 20

According to Bandura, self-efficacy beliefs are a primary source of motivation and are impacted by four informational sources: ________ ________ (prior success in performing the task), _______ _______ (observing others like oneself successfully perform the task),________ ________ (encouragement by others), and_____ ____ __________ _____ (arousal, anxiety, fatigue, and other forms of emotional and physical feedback).

Answer 20

enactive attainment; vicarious experience; verbal persuasion; emotional and physiological states

Question 21

Some research suggests that the effectiveness of guided participation is due to the ____in _______ that is provided by __________ of the target responses.

Answer 21

Improvement; self-efficacy; Successful Performance

Question 22

____ ____ is another important component of Bandura’s theory. It predicts that there is a reciprocal (interactive and influential) relationship between a person’s a) environment, b) overt behaviors, and c) cognitive, affective, and other personal characteristics. For example, a person’s past experiences in various career-related activities (past behavior), and the career chosen by the person(environment) then affects their future career-related preferences, decisions, and behaviors.

Answer 22

Reciprocal Determinism

Question 23

The ____ ____ ____ is not a general theory of learning but, instead, applies to the cognitive process associated with depression. ____ ____ refers to the tendency to give up any effort to control events in the environment and was first observed in animals that had been exposed to uncontrollable electric shock and subsequently did not even try to escape the shock when it was possible to do so. It was subsequently suggested as an etiological factor in some forms of depression.

Answer 23

Learned Helplessness Model; Learned Helplessness

Question 24

According to the ____ ____ (______) of the learned helplessness model, depression occurs when a person makes internal, stable, and global attributions for negative events. In other words, depressed people attribute the cause of negative events to themselves, believe that they will always cause negative events to happen to them, and think they cause negativity in all aspects of their lives. The learned helplessness model was again revised by Abramson, Metalsky, and Alloy (1989), who acknowledged the role of_______ in depression but proposed that attributions are important only to the extent to which they contribute to the person’s sense of _______.

Answer 24

Reformulated Version; attributional Reformulation; attributions; hopelessness

Question 25

Tolman’s research with rats in mazes suggested that the rats formed cognitive maps, thereby providing evidence of 1) ____ learning. Kohler proposed that 2) ____ learning involves internal cognitive restructuring of the environment that allows the organism to achieve goals. According to Bandura, observational learning involves four processes: attention, 3) ____, production, and motivation. Research on observational learning suggests that 4) ____ modeling is the most effective form of modeling for treating phobias and that 5) ____ models are more effective than mastery models. Bandura also proposed that a person’s self-efficacy beliefs are a primary source of motivation and are affected by four informational sources: enactive attainment, 6) ____ experience, verbal persuasion, and emotional and physiological states. His notion of 7) ____ predicts that there’s an interactive and influential relationship between a person’s environment, overt behaviors, and personal characteristics.

Answer 25

1) latent; 2) insight; 3) retention; 4) participant; 5) coping; 6) vicarious; 7) reciprocal determinism

Question 26

The reformulated version of the learned helplessness model described depression as the result of 8) ____ attributions about negative events. More recently, the model was revised to incorporate the impact of sense of 9) ____.

Answer 26

8) internal, stable, and global; 9) hopelessness