Respiratory System Flashcards
To stay awake
What are some common respiratory conditions?
Asthma Emphysema Cystic Fibrosis Chronic Bronchitis COPD (Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease)
What are the main functions of the respiratory system?
Gas exchange (atmosphere + blood) (blood + tissue) Regulation of body pH (CO2 release) Vocalisation Protection Synthesis of hormones
What forms the upper respiratory tract?
Nasal Cavity
Pharynx
Vocal Cord
Larynx
What is the function of the upper respiratory tract?
Warm
Humidify
Filter
Vocalise
What is asthma?
Respiratory condition caused by inflammation and spasms of the bronchioles. Usually triggered due to hypersensitivity.
What is emphysema?
Air sacs of the lungs are damaged and enlarged. Common in smoking and causes breathlessness
What is cystic fibrosis?
Production of thick mucus which leads to the blockade of bronchi, often results in respiratory infection.
What forms the lower respiratory tract?
Trachea
Bronchi
Bronchioles
Alveoli
What are the functions of the lower respiratory tract?
Conduct Air
Stabilise conductive airways
Regulate flow
Gas Exchange
What keeps the trachea open?
U-shaped cartilage rings and the trachealis muscle.
What important reflex does the trachealis muscle facilitate?
Coughing
What keeps the bronchi open?
Cartilage Rings (Upper) Plates (Lower Parts)
What is the function of goblet cells?
Secrete mucus to coat the respiratory tract
What is the function of ciliated cells?
Sweep mucus upwards to the pharynx, to be swallowed
What is the combined function of goblet and ciliated cells called?
The mucociliary escalator
What is the structure of Bronchioles?
Small diameter
Smooth muscle walls
How are bronchioles diameter regulated?
Histamines constrict bronchioles Parasympathetic NS (Acetylcholine induce bronchoconstriction) Sympathetic NS (Noradrenaline induces bronchodilation)
What is the structure of Alveoli?
Single cell width
Side facing capillaries - ‘leaky’ for gas exchange
Supporting side - Elastic fibres (collagen IV) , robust
What blood vessels supply the respiratory zone
Pulmonary Artery (deoxygenated blood) Capillary Network (Increases gas exchange) Pulmonary Vein (oxygenated blood)
What is the respiratory zone?
Consists of the ends of the bronchioles, alveoli and the vessels that support them.
How many types of Alveolar cells are there?
2-
Cell Type I (gas exchange)
Cell Type II (Production of surfactant)
What does surfactant do?
Reduces surface tension and prevents alveoli from collapsing
What are the pores of Kohn?
They allow for intra-alveolar ventilation
What do macrophages do related to the alveoli?
They protect from small particles and ingest degraded surfactant
Which part of the respiratory tract has the highest resistance?
The bronchi
What does flow rate ely on?
Viscosity of the gas
Airway resistance
Flow pattern (turbulence)
What conditions can increase resistance?
Inflamed airways,
Increased mucus secretion
What is a ‘shunt’?
When blood from the bronchiolar artery draining into pulmonary circulation.
What membrane lines the thoracic wall?
The parietal pleura
What membrane lines the surface of the lungs?
Visceral Pleura
Why is intrapleural pressure less than atmospheric cavity?
As the lungs and chest wall are pulling away from each other.
What is boyle’s law?
If volume increases, pressure will decrease
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
How does standing upright help breathing?
Gravity facilitates the diaphragm lowering.
What is lung compliance?
How easily the lung can be inflated and emptied
How do you calculate compliance?
Change in volume/change in pressure
What affects lung compliance?
The elasticity of the lung
Surface tension in the alveoli
How is lung compliance limited?
As the college fibres have limited length
What is the law of LaPlace?
P =2T/r
What does a spirometer do ?
monitors the volume of air inspired and expired usually done under quiet breathing and no time restraitnts
What is a lung volume ?
A single difference
What is a lung capacity ?
the sum of 2 or more lung volumes
What is tidal volume ?
volume of air that moves during a single inspiration or expiration (500 ml)
What is inspiratory reserve volume ?
Additional air you inspire on top of tidal volume
What is expiratory reserve volume ?
Amount of air forcefully exhaled at the end of normal expiration
What is residual volume ?
the volume of air remaining in the respiratory system after maximum exhalation
What is vital capacity ?
inspiratory reserve volume + expiratory reserve volume + tidal volume
What is total lung capacity ?
vital capacity + residual volume
What is functional residual capacity ?
Expiratory reserve volume + residual volume
What are dynamic measurements ?
they assess the time taken to exhale a certain volume of air
What is FEV ?
forced expired volume
How fast air leaves the airways in 1 second
What is FVC ?
Forced vital capacity
the defined amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled from the lungs after taking the deepest breath possible
What are the characteristics of restrictive lung disease ?
FVC reduced
FEV close to normal
What are the characteristics of obstructive lung disease ?
FEV reduced
FVC close to normal
What is a pneumothorax?
Presence of air in the cavity between the lung and the thoracic cavity.
What factors affect gas exchange?
Sufrace area
Thickness of the membrane
Concentration gradient
Solubility of the gas
What is meant by the term dead space?
Airways that are ventilated but not designed for gas exchange (perfusion)
What is the consequence of dead space on alveolar air?
When breathing in ‘used’ air, remaining from previous expiration, re-enters the alveolar space and ‘dilutes’ the fresh air.
What does the fowlers method measure?
Anatomic dead space
What does dalton’s law state?
The total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of partial pressures of the individual gases
How do you calculate diffusion capacity?
Rate of gas transfer from lung to blood/ driving partial pressure
How does emphysema affect gas exchange?
Destruction of alveoli means less surface area for gas exchange
How does asthma affect gas exchange?
Increased airway resistance decreases airway ventilation
How does pulmonary oedema affect gas exchange?
Fluid in interstitial space increases diffusion distance.
What are the boundaries of the thorax ?
posteriorly - thoracic vertebrae
laterally-ribs
anteriorly - sternum
How many thoracic vertebrae are there ?
12
What are the features of a typical thoracic verebra ?
body-heart shaped
spinous process-long and slender
articular process - on the body for the rib above
costovertebral facets - these are the superior and inferior demi facets
costotransverse facets - facets on the transverse processes
What are the features of a rib ?
head- facets for articulation with the demi facets in the vertebra
neck - enlarged bit is the crest
Tubercle - between the neck and the body - articulates with the facets on the transverse processes
Costal groove - on the internal inferior surface in which the neurovascular bundle runs
pit - joins to the costal cartilages
What are the 3 parts of the sternum ?
the manubrium , body and the xiphoid process
What are the 3 notches on the manubrium of the sternum ?
sternal notch
clavicular notch
notches for the costal cartilages of the first rib
What is the structure between the manubrium and the body of the sternum ?
the angle of louis or the sternal angle
What type of joint is the angle of louis ?
Symphysis
What structures bind the thoracic inlet ?
body of the first thoracic vertebra
1st rib
manubrium of the sternum
roofed by pleura
What does the thoracic inlet transmit ?
trachea oesophagus carotid artery subclavian arteries internal jugular veins brachial veins vagus nerve phrenic nerve
What are the boundaries of the thoracic outlet ?
body of the 12th vertebra
lower ribs
xiphoid cartilage
closed by the diaphragm
What does the thoracic outlet transmit ?
oesophagus dorsal aorta inferior vena cava vagus nerve phrenic nerve
What are costovertebral joints ?
articulations between the facets on the head of the rib and the facts on demi facets on the vertebra
What type of joints are the costovertebral joints ?
synovial - depression and elevation
What are the costotransverse joints ?
articulations between the facets on the transverse processes and the tubercle of the rib
What are costochondral joints ?
joints between the costal cartilages and the distal ends of the ribs
synchondroses
What are chondrosternal joints ?
between costal cartilages and the sternum
What are interchondral joints ?
between the costal cartilges
What is the type of joint between the manubrium and the first rib ?
Synchondrosis
What type of action do ribs perform ?
lever action
What happens to the ribs in ventilation ?
they elevate causing an increase in thoracic dimensions
How do the a-p and transverse diameters increase ?
anterior rib ends rise and protrude more
What are the precise movements of ribs 3 and 6 ?
elevation occurs by rotation at the neck - increasing a-p dimensions
What are the precise movements of ribs 7 and 10 ?
elevation occurs by sliding outwards and backwards increasing transverse dimensions
What are the intercostal muscles ?
the external
the internal
the innermost
What do the external intercostal muscles do ?
pass from rib to rib in an anteroinferior direction
they elevate the ribs in inspiration
What do the internal intercostal muscles do ?
pass from rib rib in perpendicular to the external intercostal muscles - they depress the ribs in inspiration
What do the innermost intercostal muscles do ?
the internal and the innermost muscles are separated by the neurovascualr bundles - intercostal arteries , nerves and veins - VAN
What is the thoracic cavity divided into ?
the right and left pleural cavities
the mediastinum
What do the pleural cavities contain and what are they lined with ?
they contain the lungs and are lined with pleura
What are the 2 types iof pleura ?
parietal
visceral
What is the parietal pleura ?
covers the inner aspect of the pleural cavity
What is the visceral pleura ?
covers the lungs
What is between the parietal and the visceral pleura ?
the pleural cavity - contains the pleural fluid
What is the costodiaphragmatic recess ?
a space between the lungs and the diaphragm created by the pleura
What are the fissures in the left lung ?
the oblique fissure creates the upper and lower lobes
What are the fissures of the right lung ?
the horizontal and the oblique fissures create the upper middle lower lobes
What is the depression found in the left lung ?
the cardiac notch to contain the heart
What is on the mediastinal aspect of each lung ?
the hilum of the lung - entrance for blood vessels and the tubes
What are the structures found in the hilum ?
primary bronchus
2 pulmonary veins
pulmonary artery
bronchial arteries - associated with the primary bronchus
What are the differences between the right and left primary bronchi ?
the right primary bronchus is wider and more vertical - more likely to find foreign bodies lodged in here
What are the 4 surfaces of the heart ?
apex
diaphragmatic surface
costal surface
mediastinal surface
Where can you find the intercostal NV bundle ?
running in the costal grooves of the ribs
Where does the intercostal nerve arise from ?
primary ramus of a thoracic spinal nerve
What are the branches of the descending aorta in the thorax ?
the posterior intercostal arteries and paired pericardial, oesophageal and bronchial arteries.
What is a bronchopulmonary segment ?
a segment of lung tissue with its own bronchus and blood supply which acts independent of other segments - can be removed without causing damage
Which branches of the subclavian artery provide an arterial supply to the thorax ?
internal thoracic artery and the costocervical trunk
What type of joints are formed between the head of the rib and the demifacets ?
synovial
How does the head of the rib articulate with the vertebra ?
the head of the rib articualtes with the same thoracic vertebra and the one above - form a full circle from the demi facets
What do ribs 11 and 12 lack ?
a transverse facet
What do the intercostal nerves supply ?
they supply the intercostal muscles and the skin supplying the space between the ribs
What is the origin of the sympathetic fibres found in the intercostal nerves ?
the ganglia of the sympathetic chain
Where do the fleshy fibres of the diaphragm insert ?
into the central tendon
What is the morphology of te diaphragm ?
double domed
What type of muscle is the diaphragm ?
skeletal muscle
What are the 2 recesses assocaited with the diaphragm ?
costomediastinal reccess
costodiaphragmatic reccess
Where is the costodiaphragmatic recess ?
within the lung
Where is the costomediastinal recess ?
between the parietal pleura and the costal pleura
What are the attachments of the diaphragm ?
sternal
costal
verterbral
lumbocostal arches
What is the sternal attachment of the diaphragm ?
Xiphoid process
What is the costal attachment of the diaphragm ?
lower 6 costal cartilages
What are the vertebral attachments of the diaphragm ?
left and right cruae and lumbocostal arches
What are the right and left crue ?
they are the parts of the diaphragm that arise from the vertebrae
Where does the right crus arise from ?
arises from L1-L3 and some fibres form around the oesophageal opening
Where does the left crus arise from ?
from L1-L2
What are the types of lumbocostal arches ?
median and lateral
What are the 3 diaphragmatic apertures ?
caval
oesophageal
aortic
What is the aortic aperture ?
T12 Passes between the fibres of the 2 crura
What is the oesophageal apertures ?
made from the fibres of the right crura
T10
What is the caval opening ?
the inferior vena cava passes through this opening in the central tendon at T8
What passes through the caval hiatus ?
the inferior vena cava
right phrenic nerve
What passes through the oesophageal hiatus ?
oesophagus
right and left vagus nerves
What passes through the aortic hiatus ?
descending aorta
thoracic duct
azygous vein
sympathetic chains
What is the motor innervation of the diaphragm ??
the anterior ramii of C3-C5 that form the phrenic nerve
What is the sensory innervation of the diaphragm ?
centrally - phrenic nerve
laterally - lower 5 intercostal nerves
What are the functions of the diaphragm ?
ventilation-regulation of thoracic pressure micturition parturition daefacation lifting
What does the anterior abdominal wall consist of ?
1 central vertical muscle which is rectus abdominis
3 flat lateral muscles - internal oblique , external oblique and transversus abdominis
What is the transversalis fascia ?
a layer of fascia found depp to the transversus abdominis
What are the attachments of the rectus abdominis ?
attaches between the ribs and the pubic bone
3 transverse tendinous bands that join to the linea alba