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Kaplan MCAT > PSYCH Chp. 4 Cognition, Consciousness & Language > Flashcards

PSYCH Chp. 4 Cognition, Consciousness & Language Flashcards

1
Q

What is assimilation?

A

the process of classifying new information into existing schemata

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2
Q

What is accommodation?

A

the process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass new information

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3
Q

What is Piaget’s first stage?

A

the sensorimotor stage starts at birth and lasts until about 2 years

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4
Q

What is the key milestone that ends the sensorimotor stage?

A

object permanence which is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view

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5
Q

What is Piaget’s second stage?

A

The preoperational stage lasts from 2 years to about 7 years and is characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration

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6
Q

What is symbolic thinking?

A

the ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have imagination

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7
Q

What is egocentrism?

A

the inability to imagine what another person may think or feel

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8
Q

What is centration?

A

the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon, or the inability to understand the concern of conservation

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9
Q

What is Piaget’s third stage?

A

concrete operational stage lasts from 7 to 11 years. In this stage, the child can understand conservation and consider the perspective of others

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10
Q

What is Piaget’s fourth stage?

A

the formal operational stage starts at about 11 years of age and is marked by the ability to think logically about abstract ideas and problem-solve

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11
Q

What is Lev Vygotsky’s theory on education?

A

proposed that the engine driving cognitive development is the child’s internalization of his or her culture, including interpersonal and social rules, symbols, and language

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12
Q

What is fluid intelligence?

A

problem-solving skills. Peaks in early adulthood

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13
Q

What is crystallized intelligence?

A

learned skills and knowledge. Peaks in middle adulthood

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14
Q

What are the symptoms of Dementia?

A

begins with memory impairment, but later progresses to impaired judgment confusion, and personality changes.

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15
Q

What are the causes of dementia?

A

The most common cause of dementia is Alzheimer’s. vascular (multi-infarct) dementia is caused by high blood pressure and repeated microscopic clots in the brain are also a prevalent cause.

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16
Q

What is delirium?

A

rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical including electrolyte and pH disturbances, malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, a drug reaction, alcohol withdrawal, and pain

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17
Q

What is functional fixedness?

A

the inability to consider how to use an object in a traditional manner
ex: Dunckers scandal problem

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18
Q

What is alogorithium?

A

a formula or procedure or solving a certain type of problem

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19
Q

What is the diff b/w deductive and inductive reasoning?

A

deductive reasoning starts from general rules and concludes the information given. inductive reasoning seeks to create a theory via generalization

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20
Q

What are the diff b/w confirmation bias and belief preservance?

A

confirmation bias is the tendency to focus on info that fits an individual’s beliefs while rejecting info that foes against them. similarly, the phenomenon of belief preservance refers to the inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary

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21
Q

What is the base rate fallacy?

A

using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical info

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22
Q

Which parts of the brain maintain alertness?

A

fibers in the prefrontal cortex communicate with the reticular formation in the brainstem

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23
Q

What is Gardner’s multiple intelligence?

A

linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence

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24
Q

When do beta waves occur?

A

beta waves have a high frequency and occur when a person is alert or attending to a mental task that requires concentration

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25
Q

How is sleep studied?

A

through electroencephalography (EEG)

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26
Q

When do alpha waves occur?

A

occurs when we are awake but relaxing with our eyes closed and are somewhat slower and more synchronized than beta waves

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27
Q

What is the EEG of Stage 1 sleep?

A

occurs as soon as you doze off, and is marked by irregular waves with slower frequencies and higher voltages (theta wave).

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28
Q

What is the EEG of Stage 2 sleep?

A

EEG shows theta waves along with sleep spindles and K complexes

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29
Q

What is the EEG of Stage 3 and 4 sleep?

A

slow-wave sleep (SWS) shows low-frequency, high-voltage (delta) waves. SWS is associated with cognitive recovery and declarative memory consolidation, as well as increased growth hormone release

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30
Q

What is the EEG of REM?

A

REM is interspersed between sleep stages 1-4. In this stage, arousal levels reach that of wakefulness, but the muscles are paralyzed (paradoxical sleep). This stage in which dreaming occurs, and is associated with procedural memory consolidation.

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31
Q

What role does melatonin play in the circadian rhythm?

A

melatonin (a hormone released from the pineal gland) causes sleepiness. The retina has a direct connection to the hypothalamus, which controls the pineal gland, thus decreasing light can cause the release of melatonin.

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32
Q

What role does cortisol play in the circadian rhythm?

A

Cortisol (steroid hormone released in the adrenal cortex) levels rise in the morning due to increasing light that causes the release of corticotrophin release factor from the hypothalamus. CRF causes the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary which stimulates cortisol release. cortisol contributes to wakefulness

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33
Q

What is dyssomnias?

A

a sleep disorder that makes it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep and it includes insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea

34
Q

What is parasomnias?

A

abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep. and include night terrors and sleepwalking

35
Q

At which stage do most sleeping disorders occur?

A

Non-rapid eye movement sleep, stages 1-4

36
Q

What are the symptoms of narcolepsy?

A

cataplexy - a loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours
sleep paralysis - a sensation of being unable to move despite being awake
hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening

37
Q

What is the diff b/w obstructive and central sleep apnea?

A

obstructive sleep apnea occurs when a physical blockage in the pharynx and trachea prevents airflow; central sleep apnea occurs when the brain fails to send signals to the diaphragm to breathe

38
Q

When do night terror and sleepwalking occur?

A

during slow-wave sleep

39
Q

What do depressants do?

A

reduces nervous system activity, resulting in a sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety

40
Q

What does alcohol do to the brain?

A

it increases the activity of the GABA receptor, a chloride channel that causes hyperpolarization of the membrane. it also increases dopamine levels, causing a sense of mild euphoria. It causes alcohol myopia - the inability to recognize the consequences of one’s actions

41
Q

What is Wernicke-Karsakoff’s syndrome?

A

caused by a deficiency of thiamine (vit. B1), and characterized by severe memory impairment with a change in mental status and loss of motor skills

42
Q

What are barbiturates and benzodiazepines used for?

A

historically used for anxiety-reducing and sleep medication. these drugs also increase GABA activity, causing a sense of relaxation

43
Q

Which drugs are depressants?

A

alcohol, barbiturates and benzodiazepines

44
Q

What do stimulants do?

A

it causes an increase in arousal in the nervous system

45
Q

What do amphetamines do to the brain?

A

it causes increased arousal by increasing the release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin at the synapse and decreasing their reuptake. This increases arousal and causes a reduction in appetite and reduced need for sleep.

46
Q

What are the physiological and psychological effects of amphetamines?

A

physiological - increased heart rate and blood pressure
psychological - euphoria, hypervigilance, anxiety, delusions or grandeur, and paranoia

47
Q

What are the results of prolonged use and withdrawal from amphetamines?

A

prolonged use of high doses can result in stroke or brain damage. Withdrawl can lead to depression, fatigue, and irritability

48
Q

What does cocaine do to the brain?

A

it decreases reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin

49
Q

What are the results of prolonged use and withdrawal from cocaine?

A

prolonged use of high doses can result in heart attack, stroke, or brain damage. Withdrawal can lead to depression, fatigue, and irritability

50
Q

What is ecstasy?

A

it is a combination of hallucinogen and amphetamine

51
Q

What are the physiological and psychological effects of ecstasy?

A

physiological - increased heart rate and blood pressure, blurry vision, sweating, nausea, hyperthermia
psychological - feeling of euphoria, increased alertness, and an overwhelming sense of well-being and connectedness

52
Q

Which drugs are stimulants?

A

amphetamines, cocaine, crack, and ecstasy

53
Q

Which drugs are opiates and opioids?

A

morphine, codeine, heroin, oxycodone, hydrocodone

54
Q

What are the results of overdosing on opioids or opiates?

A

death is caused by respiratory suppression in which the brain stops sending signals to breathe

55
Q

What do opioids and opiates do to the brain?

A

they bind to opioid receptors in the peripheral and CNS, causing a decreased reaction to pain and a sense of euphoria

56
Q

What are the physiological and psychological effects of hallucinogens?

A

psychological - distortion of reality and fantasy, enhancement of sensory experiences, and introspection.
physiological - increased heart rate and blood pressure, dilation of pupils, sweating, and increased body temperature

57
Q

What is the effect of marijuana on the brain?

A

THC exerts its effects by acting on cannabinoids, glycine, and opioid receptors. THC inhibits GABA activity, and indirectly increases dopamine activity, causing pleasure

58
Q

What are the physiological and psychological effects of marijuana?

A

physiological - eye redness, dry mouth, fatigue, impairment of short-term memory, increased heart rate, increased appetite, and lowered blood pressure
psychological - same as stimulants, depressants, and hallucinogens

59
Q

What are the parts of the mesolimbic reward pathways?

A

nucleus accumbens (NAc), ventral tegmental area (VTA), and the connection between them called the medial forebrain bundle (MFB)

60
Q

What is the mesolimbic reward pathways involved?

A

motivation and emotional response, and its activation accounts for the positive reinforcement of substance use

61
Q

What are the components of language?

A

phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics

62
Q

What is phonology?

A

refers to the actual sound of language

63
Q

What is morphology?

A

refers to the structure of words

64
Q

What is semantics?

A

refers to the association of meaning with a word

65
Q

What is syntax?

A

refers to how words are put together to form sentences

66
Q

What level of language is acquired from 9-12 months?

A

babbling

67
Q

What level of language is acquired from 12-18 months?

A

children add about 1 word per month

68
Q

What level of language is acquired from 18-20 months?

A

the explosion of language and combining words

69
Q

What level of language is acquired from 2-3 years?

A

children speak in longer sentences, and vocabulary grows exponentially

70
Q

What level of language is acquired from 5+ years?

A

language rules are largely mastered

71
Q

What is the nativist biological theory of language by Noam Chomsky?

A

explain language acquisition as being innate and controlled by a language acquisition device (LAD) a theatrical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules

72
Q

What is the learning behaviorist theory of language by B.F Skinner?

A

explains language acquisition as being controlled by operant conditioning and reinforcement by parents and caregivers

73
Q

What is the social interactionist theory of language?

A

explains language acquisition as being caused by a motivation to communicate and interact with others

74
Q

What is the Whorfian hypothesis/linguistic relativity hypothesis?

A

suggest that the content of language determines our perception of reality - language affects the way we think rather than the other way around

75
Q

What is the role of Broca’s area?

A

located in the frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe, controls the motor function of speech via connections with the motor cortex

76
Q

What is the role of Wernicke’s area?

A

located in the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe, is responsible for language comprehension.

77
Q

What is the role of accurate fasciculus?

A

connects Broca’s and Wernkck’s areas. it is a bundle of axons that allows appropriate association b/w language comprehension and speech production

78
Q

What is aphasia?

A

a deficit of language production or comprehension

79
Q

What happens when there is damage to Broca’s area?

A

broca’s expressive aphasia is when there is a reduction or absent ability to produce language. but speech comprehension is still intact. these people are often stuck with the sensation of having every word at the tip of their tongue

80
Q

What happens when there is damage to Werenick’s area?

A

motor production and fluency of speech is retained but comprehension of speech is lost. patients with Wernicke’s receptive aphasia speak nonsensical sounds and inappropriate word combinations devoid of meaning. these patients often believe that they are speaking and understanding perfectly well even though those around them have no comprehension of what is being said.

81
Q

What happens when there is damage to the arcuate fasciculus?

A

in conduction aphasia patients are unable to repeat something that has been said be/c the connection b/w Broca and Wernicke’s area has been lost. this is a very rare form of aphasia

82
Q
A

Kaplan MCAT (28 decks)

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