psyb20 exam Flashcards
one’s perceptions of one’s unique attributes or traits (What makes you unique, special and difference)
self-concept
when do we develop a sense of self?
Starts when infants realize that their bodies are separate from the environment
the recognition that one can be the cause of an event
personal agency
recognizing yourself, a complex component of self-concept
recognition
the combination of physical and psychological attributes that is unique to each individual
self
thinking that people display about the thoughts, feelings, motives, and behaviours of themselves and other people
social cognition
sensory information from the muscles, tendons, and joints that helps us locate the position of our body (or body parts) in space
Proprioceptive feedback
recognition that one can be the cause of an event
personal agency
do self-concept and self-recognition develop at the same time
no, self-concept develops early in development
self recognition is displayed by 21-24 month olds
classification along social dimensions, such as age, sex, race
categorical self
notion that everyone is watching you
imaginary audience
one’s evaluation of one’s worth as a person.
Self-esteem
- it is based on assessment of qualities identified in self-concept
who proposed the Hierarchical Model of Childhood Self-Esteem
Susan Harter
domain on which individuals base their self-esteem
Self-Worth Contingency: by Crocker and Wolfe
It is the willingness to strive to succeed at challenging tasks and to meet high standards of accomplishment
achievement motivation
inborn motive to explore, understand and control our environment
mastery motive
a desire to seek out and master challenges to satisfy personal needs for competency or mastery.
Intrinsic orientation to achievement
- because its important to you personally, not because there is a reward
this parenting provides guidance and control, while permitting independent or autonomy, leading to high achievement motivation in children.
Authoritative Parenting style
causal explanations to explain success and failure.
Achievement attributions
locus of causality can be what two things
internal or external
stability of attribution can be what two things
stable or unstable
incremental view
growth mindset
entity view
fixed mindset
describe mastery orientation
success due to high ability
failure due to low effort
they have an incremental/growth view of ability (can be improved by effort)
describe learned-helplessness orientation
success due to luck or high effort
failure due to low ability
have an entity/fixed view of ability
understanding others is understanding that other people may know or think differently from you
theory of mind
a set of principles that help us distinguish right from wrong and act on this distinction.
morality
what does a morally mature person look like
Usually someone who is caring and fair
when does prosocial behavior start to emerge
around their first birthday
children are taught social norms for altruism
Socialization Model, based off of nurture
innate tendency for altruism that is refined by socialisation
Biological Predisposition Model
Prosociality is due to nature
doing things for people you are related to
Kin-selected altruism
how is delayed gratification tested
the marshmallow test
what are the five different moral foundations?
Care (opposite of harm)
Fairness (opposite of cheating)
Loyalty (opposite of betrayal)
Authority (opposite of subversion)
Sanctity/purity (opposite of disgust)
standards of acceptable and unacceptable conduct that focus on the rights and privileges of individuals.
moral rules
a set of principles that help us distinguish right from wrong and act on this distinction.
morality
Standards of conduct determined by social consensus that indicate what is appropriate within a particular social context.
social-conventional rules
what is the premoral period
period in Piaget’s theory or moral development in which preschool children show little concern for or awarness of rules
what is heternomous morality
Piaget’s first stage of moral development, in which children view the rules of authority figures as sacred and unalterable
punishment for its own sake with no concern for its relation to the nature of the forbidden act
expiatory punishment
the notion that unacceptable conduct will invariably be punished and that justice is ever present in the world
Immanent justice
Piaget’s second state of moral development, in which children realize that rules are arbitrary agreements that can be challenged and changes with the consent of the people they govern.
autonomous morality
what are the three levels of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
- preconventional morality
- conventional morality
- post concentional morality
what are the six stages of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
- Punishment and Obedience
2: Naive Hedonism
- Good Boy or Good Girl Orientation
- Social Order Maintaining Morality
- The Social-contract orientation
- Morality of individuals principles of conscience
cognitive reframing of harmful behaviour as being morally acceptable
Mechanisms of moral disengagement
degree to which being a moral person is important to one’s identity.
Moral identity
how can people disengage from their moral reasoning?
by using mechanisms of moral disengagement: cognitive reframing of harmful behavior as being morally acceptable
what renders mechanisms of moral disengagement less effective
moral identity
rewarding children’s helping behaviour undermines it
intrinsic motivation
a preference for fairness and an aversion to situations where there in unequal distribution of reasources or rewards
inequity aversion
a process of reasoning where general principles or conclusions are derived from specific observations or examples
induction
behavior performed with the intention of harming a living being who is motivated to avoid this treatment.
aggression
what are the two categories of aggressive acts?
reactive aggression
proactive aggression
aggressive acts for which the perpetrator’s major goal is the harm or injure a victim.
reactive aggression
aggressive acts for which the perpetrator’s major goal is the gain access to objects, space, or privileges
Proactive aggression
acts such as snubbing, exclusion, withdrawing acceptance, or spreading rumors that are aimed at damaging a victim’s self-esteem, friendships, or social status
relational aggression
tendency to view harm done under ambiguous (unclear or confusing because it can be understood in more than one way) circumstance as having stemmed from a hostile intent on the part of the harm doer; characterizes reactive aggressors
hostile attribution bias
ability to feel sorrow or concern for another.
sympathy/compassion
the basic ability to experience the same or similar emotions as others has been called
empathy
feelings of sympathy or compassion that may be elicited when we experience the emotions of a distressed other
sympathetic distress
feeling of personal discomfort or distress that may be elicited when we experience the emotions of a distressed other; through to inhibit altruism
Self-oriented distress
parent-child relationship characterized by mutual responsiveness to each other’s needs and goals and shared positive affect
Mutually responsive relationship:
compliance based on the child’s eagerness to cooperate with a responsive parent who has been willing to cooperate with him or her
committed compliance
compliance based primarily on a parents’ power to control the child’s conduct
situational compliance
what are the three childrearing disciplinary techniques proposed by Hoffman
love withdrawal
power assertion
induction
What disciplinary strategy is most effective in promoting moral maturity?
induction!
explaining why a behavior is wrong and should be changed by emphasizing how it affects other people, often suggesting how the child might repair any harm done.
induction
withholding attention, affect, or approval after a child misbehaves, that is creating anxiety over a loss of love
love withdrawal
use of superior power to control the child’s behavior (including techniques, such as forceful commands, physical restraints, spanking, and withdrawal of privileges that may generate fear, anger or resentment).
power assertion
a home in which family members often annoy one another and use aggressive or otherwise antisocial tactics as a method of coping with these aversive xperiences
coercive home envrionments
what are the 3 phases of mastery motivation and the ages
joy in mastery: infancy to age 2
approval seeking: age 2
use of standards: age 3+
what is the expectancy value theory (EVT)
children’s choice, persistence, and performance are predicted by: 1. expectancy of success
2. value of acitivity (do they care about it)
Dweck said there are two kinds of people in this world, what are they
- mastery oriented
- learned helpessness oriented
belief that one’s ability can be improved through increased effort and practice
incremental view/growth mindset of ability
belief that one’s ability is a highly stable trait that is not influenced much by effort or practice
entity view or fixed mindset of ability
therapeutic intervention in which helpless children are persuaded to attribute failure to their lack of effort rather than a lack of ability
Attribution retraining
- convincing the learned helplessness individuals that they their failures are due to lack of effort not lack of ability, they can do something about iT!
praise focusing on desirable personality traits such as intelligence; this praise fosters performance goals in achievement contexts
Person praise
state of affairs in which one’s primary objective in an achievement context is to display one’s competencies (or to avoid looking incompetent)
Performance goals
how should adults praise a child’s success?
not person praise (which fosters performance goals) but process-oriented praise
praise of effort expended to formulate good ideas and effective problem-solving strategies; this praise fosters learning goals in achievement contexts
Process-oriented praise
state of affairs in which one’s primary objective in an achievement context is to increase one’s skills or abilities.
Learning goals
the process by which individuals attribute characteristics or traits to other people
Person perception
the tendency to form impressions of others by comparing and contrasting their overt behaviours
Behavioural comparisons
- increased btween the ages of 6 and 8 and declines after age 9
the tendency to base our impressions of others on the stable traits these individuals are presumed to have
Psychological constructs
the ability to assume another person’s perspective and understand his or her thoughts, feelings, and behaviours
Role-taking
what cues do infants use to evaluate others
social cues (helper vs hinderer)
fairness
what 5 cues do infants use to understand third-party social interactions
shared food preferences
shared language
prosocial behaviour
imitaiton
asynchronous movement
society that values personalism and individual accomplishments, which often take precedence over group goals. These societies tend to emphasize ways in which individuals different from each other.
individualistic societies
society that values cooperative interdependence, social harmony, and adherence to group norms. These societies generally hold that the group’s well being is more important than that of the individual.
Collectivist (communal) societies:
is the mirror test passed more in individualistic societies of collectivist (communal) societies
individualistic
how do children view ability before the age of 7
growth mindset/incremental
by the age of 8-12 how do children view ability
shift from incremental/growth view of ability to an entity (fixed mindset) of ability
children can distinguish effort from ability
at around what age do Children pass the sally anne task
age 4
on average, mirror self-recognition typically emerges at the same age, regardless of culture. what does this imply about self-recognition
it develops due to maturational processes
What is a self-representation in which children can integrate past, current, and unknown future self-representations into a notion of a “self” that endures over time?
extended self
Starting at which age do children’s own competency appraisals begin to more closely reflect other people’s evaluations of them?
age 8
Which type of mastery motivation are children demonstrating when they first seek recognition after mastering a challenging task?
approval-seeking
the process by which individuals attribute characteristics or traits to other people
person perception
What is the term for compliance based on the child’s eagerness to reciprocate cooperation with a responsive parent?
committed (not situational)
