Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Psychology > bio module 2 > Flashcards

bio module 2 Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
AP® Psychology flashcards Psychology 101 flashcards GRE® Psychology flashcards
1
Q

the process of producing offspring that receive genetic material from two parents; it occurs by the production of gametes followed by fertilization to produce a zygote.

A

sexual reproduction

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

what are sperm and eggs?

A

gametes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

how are gametes produced?

A

meiotic cell divsion

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

a form of cell division that included only one round of DNA replication but two rounds of nuclear division

A

meiotic cell division

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

a cross in which female and male parents are interchanged

A

reciprocal cross

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

homologous chromosomes fail to separate: All resulting gametes have an extra or missing chromosome

A

first-division non disjunction

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Sister chromatids fail to separate: gametes will have an extra chromosome, missing chromosome or proper number of chromosomes

A

second-division non disjunction

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

failure of a pair of chromosomes to separate normally during anaphase of cell division

A

nondisjunction

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

interbreeding between two different varieties or species of an organism

A

hybridization

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

reductional division, the number of chromosomes are halved from 2n to n

A

Meiosis 1

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

equational division in which the number of chromosomes is unchanges

A

Meiosis 2

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

the aligned and precise paring of homologous chromosomes in prophase 1 of meiosis

A

synapsis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

A four stranded chromosomal structure characterized by a pair of homologous chromosomes, each consisting of two chromatids, paired side by side held together by one of more chiasmata during prophase 1 of meiosis

A

bivalent

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

result from the replication of homologous chromosomes (one is maternal one is paternal), they have the same set of genes in the same order, but are NOT genetically identical

A

nonsister chromatids

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

result from the replication of a single chromosome so they are genetically identical

A

sister chromatids

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

what is the result of meiotic cell division

A

daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parents

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

describes an allele or trait that is only expressed by homozygotes, two BLANK alleles are needed to express the phenotype

A

recessive

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

describes an allele or trait that is expressed in heterozygotes; only one BLANK allele is needed to express the phenotype

A

dominant

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

the interaction of genes affecting the same trait and it can modify the 9:3:3:1 ratio of phenotypes

A

epistasis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

interaction between genes that modifies the phenotypic expression of genotypes

A

epistasis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

a diagram of family history that summarizes the record of the ancestor- descendant relationships among individuals

A

pedigree

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

what is brachydactylyl

A

a rare dominant trait in which the middle long bone in fingers fail to grow, fingers remain short, this was the first demonstration of dominant mendelian inheritance in humans

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

what is albinism

A

a rare recessive trait in which the amount of melanin pigment in the skin, hair and eyes is reduced

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

mutation in the gene OCA2 leads to

A

albinism (since this gene encodes a membrane transporter protein thought to be important in the transport of the amino acid tyrosine which is used in the synthesis of the melanin pigement)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

the phenomenon in which some individuals with a genotype corresponding to a trait do not show the phenotype, either because of environmental effects of because or interactions with other genes

A

incomplete penetrance

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

portion of individuals with a particular genotype that shows the expected phenotype

A

pentrance

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

what happens if the penetrance is less than 100%

A

the trait shows reduced or incomplete penetrance

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

what is the difference between incomplete penetrance and variable expressivity

A

incomplete penetrance trait is sometimes expressed and sometimes not

variable expressivity trait is always expressed

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

the phenomenon in which a particular phenotype is expressed with a degree of severity in different individuals

A

variable expressivity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

what is the difference between a haploid and a diploid

A

a haploid is made up of one copy of a chromosome (n)
a diploid is made up of two copies of each chromosome (2n)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

fusion of haploid cells to produce a diploid cell

A

fertilization

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

interpreting pedigrees can be hard due to:

A

1) incomplete penetrance 2) variable expressivity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

genes in the X chromosome

A

X-linked genes or sex linked genes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

the most common allele, genotype or phenotype present in a population; non mutant

A

wild type

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

a pattern in which an X chromosome present in a male in one generation is transmitted to a female in the next generation, and in the next generation after that can be transmitted back to make

A

crisscross inheritance

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

what is hemophilia

A

results from a recessive mutation in a gene encoding a protein necessary for blood clotting

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

organelles in the offspring cells derive from those in the mother

A

maternal inheritance

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

what are the types of diversity of inheritance of cytoplasmic organelles?

A

maternal inheritance, paternal inheritance, biparental inheritance

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

organelles in the offpsring cells derive from those in the father

A

paternal inheritance

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

organelles in the offspring cells derive from those in both parents

A

biparental inheritance

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

describes genes that are sufficiently close together in the same chromosome that they do not assort independently

A

linked genes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

progeny in which alleles are present in the same combination as that present in a parent

A

nonrecombinants

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

an offspring with a different combination of alleles from that of either parent, resulting from one or more crossovers in prophase 1 or meiosis

A

recombinant

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

a diagram showing the relative positions of genes along a chromosome

A

genetic mapping

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

a unit of distance in a genetic map equal to the distance between genes resulting in 1% recombination

A

map unit

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

what is SRY

A

sex determining region in the Y chromosome

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

what happens if SRY is present

A

male structures complete their development and females structures degenerate

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

what happens is SRY is absent

A

male embryonic structures degenerate and female structures complete their development

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

a gene that is present in the region of the Y chromosome that shares no homology with the X chromosome

A

Y linked genes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

the particular combination of alleles present in any defined region of a single chromosome

A

haplotype/haploid genotype

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

the principle molecule of biological heredity, a polymer of nucleotides

A

DNA!

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

what carries our most essential activities in a cell?

A

proteins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

what does virulent mean?

A

causes illness or death

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

what is at the 3’ end

A

a free 3’ hydroxyl

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

what are the three parts of a nucleotide?

A
  1. 5 carbon sugar
  2. base
  3. Phosphate group (1 or more)
53
Q

what is at the 5’ end

A

a free 5’ phosphate

53
Q

A and T are held together by

A

2 hydrogen bonds

53
Q

what are two ways the double helix can be described?

A
  1. a ribbon model with the backbones as ribbon
  2. a space filling molecules in which the atoms are shown as solid spheres
53
Q

what makes DNA and RNA different?

A

DNA does not have an oxygen on the 2’ carbon on the sugar
RNA does have an oxygen on the 2’ carbon on the sugar

53
Q

the larger of two uneven grooves on the outside of a DNA duplex

A

major groove

53
Q

G and C are held together by

A

3 hydrogen bonds

53
Q

the smaller of two unequal grooves on the outside of a DNA duplex

A

minor groove

53
Q

what are three structural features of DNA

A
  1. DNA is made up on subunits called bases
  2. DNA is a linear polymer of nucleotides with sugar subunits linked by phosphodiester bonds
  3. Cellular DNA is a double helix with two strands that are antiparallel to each other
53
Q

what are pyrimidines

A

T, G, U single ringed structures

54
Q

what are purines

A

A and G, double ring structure

54
Q

the production of a functional gene product such as a protein

A

gene expression

55
Q

transcription and translation are two products of…

A

gene expression

56
Q

RNA to DNA: two examples are

A

AIDS and HIV

57
Q

RNA to RNA: two examples are

A

SARS or COVID

58
Q

the synthesis of RNA from a DNA template

A

transcription

59
Q

synthesis of a polypeptide chain corresponding to the coding sequence present in a molecule of messenger RNA

A

translation

60
Q

where does transcription and translation happen in prokaryotes?

A

both in cytoplasm

61
Q

where does transcription and translation happen in eukaryotes

A

transcription: in nucleus
translation: in cytoplasm

62
Q

which is more stable DNA or RNA? and why

A

DNA is more stable since RNA has hydroxyl group which are reactive and unstable functional groups

63
Q

what are the three steps of transcription and explain

A
  1. initiation: DNA polymerase are other proteins come to the double stranded DNA, DNA strands are separated, transcript of the template strand begins
  2. Elongation: nucleotides are added to the 3’ end of the growing RNA transcript as the RNA polymerase proceeds along the template strand
  3. Termination: RNA polymerase encounters a sequence in the template strand that causes transcription to STOP and RNA transcript is released
64
Q

where RNA polymerase and other proteins bind to DNA, regions of a few hundred base pairs

A

promoters

65
Q

a DNA sequence at which transcription stops and the transcript is released

A

terminator

66
Q

genes that are constantly being expressed

A

housekeeping genes

67
Q

a protein that associates with RNA polymerase that facilitates its binding to specific promoters

A

sigma factor

68
Q

a complex of proteins that interacts with Pol II complex and allows transcription to begin

A

mediator complex

69
Q

a protein that binds to the promoters of a gene whose combined action is necessary for transcription

A

general transcription factor

70
Q

a protein that binds to a sequence in DNA to enable transcription to begin

A

transcriptional activator protein (TAP)

71
Q

a specific DNA sequence located upstream, downstream, or within a gene that is necessary for transcription

A

enhancer

72
Q

so what are the four things we need to initiate transcription in eukaryotes?

A
  1. transcriptional activator proteins
  2. mediator complex
  3. RNA polymerase complex (Pol II)
  4. general transcription factors
73
Q

what can be found within the RNA polymerase complex (Pol II)

A

transcription bubble

74
Q

noncoding RNA found in all ribosomes that aid in translation

A

ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

75
Q

noncoding RNA that carries individual amino acids for use in translation

A

transfer RNA (tRNA)

76
Q

noncoding RNA found in eukaryotes and involved in splicing, polydenylation, and other processes in the nucleus

A

small nuclear RNA (snRNA)

77
Q

small, regulatory RNA molecules that can cleave or destabilize RNA or inhibit its translation

A

microRNA (miRNA)

78
Q

a type of small double-stranded regulatory RNA that becomes part of a complex able to cleave and destroy single-stranded RNA with a complementary seqeunce

A

small interfering RNA (siRNA)

79
Q

a process in which primary transcripts from the same gene are spliced in different ways to yield different mRNAs and therefore different protein products

A

alternative splicing

80
Q

protein coding sequence

A

exons

81
Q

noncoding regions

A

introns

82
Q

what are the five types of noncoding RNA?

A
  1. rRNA
  2. tRNA
  3. snRNA
  4. miRNA
  5. siRNA
83
Q

molecules of mRNA that code for multiple proteins

A

polycistronic mRNA

84
Q

a group of genes with related functions, usually resulting from multiple rounds of duplication and divergence

A

gene family

85
Q

what are the four types of point mutations/nucleotide substitution?

A
  1. single-nucleotide polymorphism
  2. Synonymous/silent mutation
  3. non-synonymous/missence mutation
  4. nonsense mutation
86
Q

what are transposable elements/transpoons

A

a DNA sequence that can replicate and move from one location to another in a DNA molecule (some mutations are due to an insertion of a transposable element)

87
Q

what are the five things in an amino acid?

A
  1. alpha (carbon)
  2. amino group (-NH2)
  3. carboxyl group (-COOH)
  4. hydrogen atom (-H)
  5. R group
88
Q

what are the types of amino acids and explain

A
  1. hydrophobic amino acids: do not interact with water, do not form hydrogen bonds, they have nonpolar R groups
  2. hydrophilic amino acids: form hydrogen bonds, polar R groups, they lose a proton and become positively charged
  3. Special amino acids: effect on protein structure (glycine, proline, cysteine)
89
Q

what is a peptide bond between

A

carboxyl group and amino acid

90
Q

what are amino acids linked together by

A

peptide bonds

91
Q

explain the four protein structures

A

primary protein structures: sequence of amino acids

secondary protein structures: hydrogen bonding of the peptide backbone causes the amino acids to fold into a repeating pattern (there are alpha and beta and both stabilized by hydrogen bonds along the backbone)

tertiary protein structure: three dimensional folding pattern of a protein due to side chain interactions (3 models: ball and stick, ribbon model, space filling model)

quaternary protein structures: protein consisting of more than one amino acid chain, polypeptide subunits may be identical or different (ex. HIV two same polypeptides, hemoglobin to different polypeptides)

92
Q

what are the three parts of translation and explain

A

initiation: initiator AUG codon is recognizes and Met is established as the first amino acid in the polypeptide chain

elongation: amino acids are added to growing chain

termination: amino acids stop getting added to polypeptide chain and is released from ribosome

93
Q

what is an initiation factor

A

a protein that binds to mRNA (helps translation begin)

94
Q

a protein that breaks the high energy bonds of the molecule GTP to provide energy for ribosome movement and elongation of the growing polypeptide chain

A

elongation factor

95
Q

a protein that causes a polypeptide chain to be freed from its ribosome

A

release factor

96
Q

the process by which proteins end up where they need to be in the cell to perform their function

A

protein sorting/targeting

97
Q

an amino acid sequence in a protein that directions the protein to its proper cellular compartment

A

signal sequences

98
Q

a peptide signal sequence that travels proteins to move from the cytoplasm of a cell through nuclear pores into the nucleus

A

nuclear localization signals

99
Q

why do traits differ

A

genetic variation and environment

100
Q

what is our genotype?

A

the genetic makeup of a cell or organisms; the particular combination of alleles present in an individual

101
Q

any genetic difference among individuals that is present in multiple individuals in a population (result of mutation that spread through population)

A

polymorphisms

102
Q

two copies of the same allele in a gene

A

homozygous

103
Q

two different alleles of a gene

A

heterozygous

104
Q

individuals observable characteristics or traits

A

phenotype

105
Q

three broad types of mutations and explain

A
  1. harmful mutations: affect our ability to survive and reproduce
  2. neutral mutation: does not affect survival or reproduction
  3. beneficial mutations: improve the chance of survival and reproduction
106
Q

a genetic site in the genome that is especially mutable

A

hotspot

107
Q

a reproductive cell that produces gametes, mutations are transmitted to the next and future generations

A

germ cell

108
Q

non-productive cell, the most common type of cell, mutations are no transmitted to future generations, they also have the greater rate of mutations

A

somatic cell

109
Q

the analysis of a small quantity of DNA to uniquely identify an individual, also called DNA finger printing

A

DNA typing

110
Q

a region along a DNA molecule in which many identical copies of a short sequence of nucleotides are adjacent to one another

A

tandem repeat

111
Q

process of creating genes from duplicates of old ones

A

duplication and divergence

112
Q

a region of a chromosome that is present twice instead of once

A

duplication

113
Q

a mission region of a gene or chromosome

A

deletion

114
Q

a protein that recruits the components of the transcription complex to the gene, has two binding sites, binds near enhancer

A

regulatory transcription factors

115
Q

a protein that binds to the promoter of a gene whose combined action is necessary for transcription

A

general transcription factors

116
Q

DNA sequences that binds with regulatory transcription factors and repress transcription

A

silencers

117
Q

regulation of gene transcription by means of multiple transcriptional factors acting together

A

combinational control

118
Q

the % of cases in which both members of a par of twins show the trait when it is know that at least one member shows it

A

concordance

119
Q

twins that came from a single fertilized eggs, after several rounds of cell division, they are separated into two distinct but genetically identical embryos

A

monozygotic (MZ), identical twins

120
Q

twins that arise form 2 separate eggs produced by double ovulation, fertilized by 2 sperm

A

dizygotic (DZ), fraternal twins

121
Q

the transfer of info among individuals through learning or imitation

A

cultural transmission

122
Q

with regard to complex traits, the principle that offspring exhibit an average phenotype that is intermediate between their parents and the population

A

regression towards the mean

123
Q

unequal effects of the environment on different genotypes, resulting in different phenotypes

A

genotype by environment

124
Q

a complex trait that is influenced by many genes and the environment and that is measurable along a continuum (ex. height and weight)

A

quantitative traits

125
Q
A

Psychology (32 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions