Memory

Question 1

memory

Answer 1

an active system that receives information from the senses, puts that information into a usable form (encoding), organizes it as it stores it away (storage), and then retrieves the information from storage (retrieval)

Question 2

encoding

Answer 2

first process in the memory system
gets sensory info into a form the brain can use
the set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert the info into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage systems

Question 3

transduction

Answer 3

when hear sound, ears turn vibrations in air into neural messages from the auditory nerve

Question 4

storage

Answer 4

hold on to info for period of time

period of time different lengths depending on system of memory being used

Question 5

retrieval

Answer 5

getting information person knows they have out of storage

Question 6

information processing model

Answer 6

most comprehensive model, most influential over past few decades
focuses on way information handled or process through three different systems of memory
encoding, storage, and retrieval
memory is like a computer

Question 7

parallel distributed processing (PDP) model

Answer 7

aka connectionism
memory is a simultaneous process with the creation and storage of memories taking place across a series of mental networks stretched across the brain
simultaneous processing allows people to retrieve different aspects of memory all at once, facilitating faster reactions and decisions

Question 8

connectionism

Answer 8

the use of artificial neural networks to explain the mental abilities of humans

Question 9

levels-of-processing model

Answer 9

memory’s duration depends on depth to which info processed/encoded
thinking about the meaning of something is a deeper level of processing and results in longer retention

Question 10

sensory memory

Answer 10

first stage of memory
point at which memory enters nervous system through sensory systems
info encoded into sensory memory as neural messages in nervous system
allows for double takes
two kinds: iconic and echoic

Question 11

iconic sensory memory

Answer 11

visual sensory memory

lasts for a fraction of a second

Question 12

partial report method

Answer 12

sperling
showed grid of letters, sounded low medium or high tone after grid
report specific row corresponding to specific sound
subjects could report any row
if delayed tone, subjects can’t recall

Question 13

masking

Answer 13

information that has just entered iconic memory will be pushed out very quickly by new information

Question 14

eidetic imagery

Answer 14

ability to access a visual sensory memory over a long period of time
not quite photographic memory

Question 15

echoic sensory memory

Answer 15

brief memory of something a person has heard

Question 16

iconic memory capacity

Answer 16

everything that can be seen at one time

Question 17

iconic memory duration

Answer 17

quarter of a second

Question 18

iconic memory function

Answer 18

helps visual system to view surroundings as continuous and stable in spite of saccadic eye movements and allows brain stem to decide if info is important enough to be brought into consciousness

Question 19

echoic memory capacity

Answer 19

limited to what can be heard at any one moment and is smaller than capacity of iconic memory, but lasts longer

Question 20

echoic memory duration

Answer 20

2-4 seconds

Question 21

echoic memory function

Answer 21

useful to have meaningful conversations with others, remember what people said to understand it, allows people to hold on to incoming auditory info long enough for lower brain centers to determine if processing by higher brain centers needed

Question 22

short term memory

Answer 22

STM
stage of memory after sensory memory
held for up to 30 seconds or more (12-30 seconds without rehearsal)
encoded primarily in auditory form

Question 23

selective attention

Answer 23

ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input
through selective attention that information enters our STM system

Question 24

broadbent’s filter theory

Answer 24

bottleneck occurs between sensory memory and STM
only a stimulus important enough will be selected from all of the info in sensory memory to be consciously analyzed for meaning in STM

Question 25

when is information conscious

Answer 25

when person thinking actively about information

Question 26

cocktail party effect

Answer 26

in area with lots of noise but can notice when someone says your name areas of brain involved in selective attention working

Question 27

treisman's theory of two stage selective attention

Answer 27

first stage: incoming stimuli in sensory memory filtered on basis of simple physical characteristics, but no move to STM or lost just lessening (attenuation) of signal strength of unselected memory second stage: only stimuli that meet certain threshold of importance are processed

Question 28

working memory

Answer 28

active system that processes information present in short term memory made of central executive, visual sketchpad, and auditory action recorder

Question 29

central executive

Answer 29

controls and coordinates other visual sketchpad and auditory recorder interpreter for visual and auditory information

Question 30

visual sketchpad

Answer 30

contains images of people and events of memory

Question 31

auditory recorder

Answer 31

plays dialogue in person's head

Question 32

miller

Answer 32

wanted to know how much info humans can hold in STM at one time digit span test found magical number 7±2

Question 33

digit span test

Answer 33

series of numbers read to subjects, have to recall numbers, each series longer until can't recall numbers found magical number 7±2 current research says younger adults 3-5 info if no strategy when info more difficult can hold 4

Question 34

chunking

Answer 34

recoding or reorganizing information | makes it easier to remember

Question 35

maintenance rehearsal

Answer 35

repeat something in head over and over continuing to pay attention to info to be held in memory info stays in STM until rehearsal stops, then memory decays could also not work bc of interference aka rote learning

Question 36

long term memory

Answer 36

LTM system into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently capacity: unlimited duration: relatively permanent physical change in brain when memory formed, many memories still there available but not accessible

Question 37

elaborative rehearsal

Answer 37

a way of transferring information from STM to LTM by making that information meaningful in some way easiest way is to connect new information with something that is already well known deeper kind of processing than maintenance rehearsal and thus leads to better long term storage

Question 38

two kinds of LTM

Answer 38

nondeclarative and declarative

Question 39

nondeclarative memory

Answer 39

aka implicit memory memories for things people know how to do procedural memory and priming

Question 40

procedural memory

Answer 40

skills and habits

Question 41

priming

Answer 41

improvement in identifying or processing concepts, words, or objects after having prior experience with them

Question 42

anterograde amnesia

Answer 42

when there is damage to the hippocampal area of brain new long term declarative memories cannot be formed loss of memories from point of injury or illness forward HM

Question 43

tower of hanoi

Answer 43

patients with anterograde amnesia taught to solve puzzle, when brought back into room later couldn't remember seeing puzzle or examiner but able to solve puzzle procedural memories formed and stored in part of brain separate from part controlling memories could no longer form

Question 44

declarative memory

Answer 44

aka explicit memory things people can know facts and information that make up knowledge two types are semantic and episodic

Question 45

semantic memory

Answer 45

general knowledge that anyone has the ability to know most of this learned in school or by reading type of declarative memory awareness of meanings of words, concepts, and terms as well as names of objects, math skills, etc relatively permanent

Question 46

episodic memory

Answer 46

memories of what happened to people each day, certain birthdays, anniversaries, that were particularly special, childhood events, etc updated and revised constantly

Question 47

semantic network model

Answer 47

assumes that information is stored in the brain in a connected fashion with concepts that are related to each other stored physically closer to each other than concepts that are not highly related PDP model explains how rapidly different points on networks can be accessed

Question 48

prospective memory

Answer 48

enables us to remember that we need to perform a task a later time enables us to remember and complete the task

Question 49

what maintenance rehearsal vs chunking increases

Answer 49

mr: capacity c: duration

Question 50

retrieval cue

Answer 50

stimulus for remembering

Question 51

encoding specificity

Answer 51

tendency for memory of any kind of information to be improved if retrieval conditions are similar to conditions under which information was encoded

Question 52

context dependent learning

Answer 52

physical surroundings person is in when they are learning specific information

Question 53

state dependent learning

Answer 53

memories formed during a particular psychological or physiological state easier to remember while in similar state

Question 54

two kinds of retrieval of memories

Answer 54

recall and recognition

Question 55

recall

Answer 55

memories retrieved with few or no external cues

Question 56

recognition

Answer 56

looking at or hearing information and watching it to what is already in memory

Question 57

tip of the tongue phenomenon

Answer 57

when recall fails so people struggle for an answer | best solution is to forget about it

Question 58

serial position effect

Answer 58

information at beginning and end of list remembered more easily and accurately

Question 59

primacy effect

Answer 59

words at beginning of list remembered better than those in middle of list occurs because person has nothing in STM to interfere with rehearsal at beginning of list

Question 60

recency effect

Answer 60

increase in recall at end of list | occurs bc last word or two was just heard and still in STM, no new words pushing it out

Question 61

false positive

Answer 61

occurs when recognition is wrong occurs when person thinks they have recognized (or even recalled) something or someone but in fact does not have that something or someone in memory

Question 62

loftus

Answer 62

one of world's leading memory researchers focus on inaccuracies of memory retrieval shows eyewitness testimony can be influenced by info given after event

Question 63

automatic encoding

Answer 63

when long term memories enter permanent storage with little or no effort at all

Question 64

flashbulb memories

Answer 64

memories of highly emotional events that seem vivd and detailed special kind of automatic encoding when unexpected event or episode has strong emotional associations

Question 65

bartlett

Answer 65

schema theorist saw process of memory as creating a story rather than reading one already written memory is problem solving activity where person tries to retrieve particulars of past event (problem) by using current knowledge and inferring from evidence to create the memory (solution)

Question 66

constructive processing

Answer 66

view of memory retrieval memories are built or reconstructed from information stored away during encoding each time memory retrieved, may be altered or revised in some way to include new information or to exclude details that may be left out

Question 67

hindsight bias

Answer 67

tendency of people to falsely believe they would have accurately predicted an outcome without having been told about it in advance

Question 68

misinformation effect

Answer 68

false memories are created by person being exposed to information after event misleading information becomes part of actual memory, affecting its accuracy

Question 69

false memory syndrome

Answer 69

creation of inaccurate or false memories through suggestion of others, often while person under hypnosis

Question 70

two steps that must occur before people likely to interpret their thoughts and fantasies about false events as true memories

Answer 70

1. the event must be made to seem as plausible as possible | 2. individuals are given information that helps them believe that the event could have happened to them personally

Question 71

Mr. S

Answer 71

Mr. S was a mnemonist (memory expert or exceptional memory ability) but unable to forget lists noooooo

Question 72

curve of forgetting

Answer 72

ebbinghaus memorized list of nonsense syllables graph shows forgetting happens quickly within first hour after learning lists then tapers off gradually forgetting greatest just after learning

Question 73

distributed practice

Answer 73

spacing out one's study sessions | produces far better retrieval of information than massed practice

Question 74

massed practice

Answer 74

attempt to study body of material all at once

Question 75

encoding failure

Answer 75

failure to process information into memory | information doesn't get past sensory memory

Question 76

memory trace

Answer 76

some physical change in the brain, perhaps in a neuron or in activity between neurons, which occurs when a memory is formed

Question 77

decay

Answer 77

if memory traces aren't used they may decay and fade into nothing

Question 78

disuse

Answer 78

LTM decay theory

Question 79

proactive interference

Answer 79

tendency for older or previously learned material to interfere wit the learning and subsequent retrieval of new material

Question 80

retroactive interference

Answer 80

when newer information interferes with retrieval of older information

Question 81

reasons for forgetting

Answer 81

encoding failure, decay or disuse, proactive interference, retroactive interference

Question 82

where are procedural, STM, fear memories stored

Answer 82

procedural: cerebellum STM: prefrontal cortex and temporal lobe fear: amygdala

Question 83

long term potentiation

Answer 83

changes in the sensitivity of synapse through repeated stimulation

Question 84

consolidation

Answer 84

mammalian brain modifies 4E-BP2 in certain way, alteration and other changes that take place as a memory is forming are called consolidation

Question 85

4E-BP2

Answer 85

protein in mammals | controls production of new nervous system proteins

Question 86

HM

Answer 86

suffered from seizures, hippocampus and adjacent medial temporal lobe structures removed completely unable to remember new events or facts, consolidation impossible

Question 87

retrograde amnesia

Answer 87

loss of memory from point of injury backward | consolidation process gets disrupted and loses everything not already nearly finished

Question 88

ECT

Answer 88

used on depressed patients | couldn't remember past three years shows (retrograde amnesia)

Question 89

senile dementia

Answer 89

mental disorder with severe forgetfulness and mood swings | anterograde amnesia

Question 90

Alzheimer's

Answer 90

anterograde amnesia initially, later retrograde amnesia takes hold

Question 91

infantile amnesia

Answer 91

people can't remember first 2 to 3 years of life early memories implicit and hard to make conscious explicit memory doesn't really develop until age 2

Question 92

autobiographical memory

Answer 92

memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story

Question 93

important factors in improving or maintaining memory's health

Answer 93

sleep, exercise, diet high in DHA

Question 94

sleep

Answer 94

memories rehearsed during sleep as well as waking more likely to be consolidated and remembered better later can practice information while asleep sleep deprivation interferes with functioning of hippocampus

Question 95

exercise

Answer 95

extra norepinephrine released during exercise | norepinephrine strong role in formation of memories

Question 96

diet high in DHA

Answer 96

fish has high levels of omega 3 fatty acid DHA | DHA helps memory cells communicate, resulting in improved memory

Question 97

Procedural memories Short term memories Semantic and episodic memories Formation of new declarative long term memories

Answer 97

Cerebellum Prefrontal cortex and temporal lobe Frontal lobe and temporal lobe (different places than STM) Hippocampus