Lecture 14 (Chapter 16) Flashcards
Health Psychology
is a branch of psychology that focuses on how biological, social, and psychological factors influence health and illness
According to the American Psychological Association (APA, 1979), health psychology encompasses the educational, research, and clinical contributions of psychology in the following areas:
Promotion and Maintenance of Health: encouraging behaviors that promote well-being and prevent disease. This includes developing strategies to help people adopt and maintain healthy lifestyles
Prevention and Treatment of Illness: involved in preventing illness and managing chronic conditions. This can involve educating individuals about risk factors (e.g., smoking, poor diet, lack of exercise) and providing interventions to reduce those risks
The analysis and improvement of the health care system and health policy formation: extends to the systemic level, where psychologists examine the functioning of healthcare systems, evaluate policies, and look for ways to improve the delivery of health care.
This includes studying patient-provider interactions, improving health communication, and advocating for health policies that promote well-being
What % of all deaths are preventable due to lifestyles
50%
Stress
A state that impairs our ability to respond to internal and external demands
Stress is a complex
psychobiological process that involves both physical and psychological components. It can be understood from three main perspectives: Stress as stimulus, response and process
Stress as a stimulus
external event or stimulus that causes strain on an individual. These stimuli can be catastrophes (e.g., natural disasters, accidents), life events (e.g., moving to a new city, getting married, losing a loved one), or ongoing circumstances (e.g., chronic work pressure, financial difficulties).
These external events are perceived as threatening or challenging and can trigger the stress response
Stress as a response
Physiologically, stress activates the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), triggering the “fight-or-flight” response. This leads to changes in the body, such as increased heart rate, elevated blood pressure, and the release of stress hormones like cortisol and adrenaline.
Psychologically, stress can result in feelings of anxiety, fear, or irritability. Cognitive responses might include worrying, ruminating, or feeling overwhelmed by the situation.
Stress as a process
This perspective is often framed within the transactional model of stress, developed by Lazarus and Folkman. According to this model, stress occurs when an individual perceives an event as threatening or beyond their ability to cope with it. The stress response depends on cognitive appraisals, where the individual evaluates whether they have the resources to handle the stressor.
- Relationship between person and environment
Primary vs secondary cognitive appraisal
Primary appraisal: involves determining whether the situation is threatening or challenging
Secondary appraisal: involves evaluating whether the individual has the resources (e.g., coping strategies, social support) to deal with the situation
Who came up with the concept of primary and secondary appraisal
Richard Lazarus: stress is a transaction between a person and their environment
– Primary appraisal: person evaluates situations as benign or
stressful
– Secondary appraisal: person decides how to deal with stress
Lazarus identifies three types of stress:
– Loss: person loses a loved one or a possession
– Threat: anticipated harm
– Challenge: opportunity for growth (new job)
Appraisal of stress
The appraisal of stress plays a crucial role in how we perceive and respond to stressors. According to Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional Model of Stress, we can influence the impact of a stressor in three key ways: Behaviourally, cognitively, emotionally
Appraisal of stress: Behaviourally
Behavioral coping involves the actions we take to manage or avoid stressors. Our behavior can either amplify or mitigate the impact of stress
Drug use: Using substances like alcohol, drugs, or nicotine as a coping mechanism might provide temporary relief from stress, but it often worsens the situation in the long run.
Relaxation methods: like deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, or mindfulness meditation can help reduce stress by calming the body and mind. These behaviors promote a healthier, more adaptive response to stress
Appraisal of stress: Cognitively
Cognitive coping involves how we think about the stressor and how we interpret or reframe it
Denial: One cognitive response to stress might be denial, where an individual refuses to acknowledge the reality of the stressor. This can lead to avoidance and a lack of proactive coping, making the problem worse over time.
Cognitive restructuring: Cognitive restructuring (also known as cognitive reframing) is a more adaptive cognitive strategy. It involves changing the way we think about a stressor. For example, seeing a stressful situation as an opportunity for personal growth or a challenge to overcome can reduce feelings of helplessness and make the situation seem more manageable
Appraisal of stress: Emotionally
Emotional coping refers to how we manage or regulate our emotional reactions to stress. This can significantly affect our mental and physical health.
Hopelessness: When we feel hopeless about a situation, it can intensify feelings of stress, anxiety, and depression. Hopelessness often leads to helplessness and a lack of motivation to solve the problem, which can exacerbate stress.
Optimism: Conversely, maintaining an optimistic outlook can have a protective effect on our stress response. Optimism involves the belief that things can improve and that challenges are temporary. This mindset can boost resilience, enhance problem-solving skills, and improve overall well-being.
Sympathetic-Adrenal-Medullary (SAM) System and the Stress Response
is one of the body’s primary physiological pathways involved in the stress response. It is responsible for preparing the body to react to stressors by triggering the fight-or-flight response.
Explain SAM with the stress response
Cerebral Cortex: When a stressful stimulus (such as danger, emotional upset, or a challenge) is perceived, it is processed by the cerebral cortex, the part of the brain responsible for higher functions such as thought, perception, and interpretation. Evaluates the significance of the event, determining if it represents a threat or challenge.
Activation of the Hypothalamus: Cerebral cortex sends signals. The hypothalamus plays a key role in regulating bodily functions and is responsible for activating the autonomic nervous system (ANS), including the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), which is responsible for the fight-or-flight response.
Stimulation of the Adrenal Medulla: activation of the SNS also triggers the Adrenal Medulla, the inner part of the adrenal glands, which sit atop the kidneys. Secretes 2 catecholimines: epinephrine: “fight or flight hormone” , and norepinephrine: Body alertness
Raises blood pressure, irregular heart rate, sweating, constriction of peripheral blood vessels
The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is the part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for immediate action by triggering the fight-or-flight response.
When activated, the SNS stimulates several physiological changes to help the body cope with a perceived threat:
Increased heart rate: This allows for quicker delivery of oxygen and nutrients to muscles, preparing the body for quick action.
Increased blood flow to muscles: Redirects blood to the muscles and vital organs necessary for physical response.
Increased breathing rate: To provide more oxygen for muscles and vital organs
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenocortical (HPA) System and Stress Response
another critical pathway involved in the body’s response to stress, working alongside the Sympathetic-Adrenal-Medullary (SAM) system. While the SAM system prepares the body for immediate action through the fight-or-flight response, the HPA axis is primarily involved in the longer-term response to stress and helps the body manage stress over a longer duration.
Explain HPA and the stress response
Activation of the Hypothalamus: detects a stressor (whether physical or psychological) and releases Corticotropin-Releasing Factor (CRF).
CRF acts as a signal to the next part of the HPA system, the pituitary gland
Stimulation of the Pituitary Gland: CRF from the hypothalamus triggers the pituitary gland (often referred to as the “master gland” due to its control over other glands). In response to CRF, the pituitary gland secretes a hormone called Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) into the bloodstream.
This affects adrnal cortex, releasing
coritcosteroids like cortisol that reduce
inflammation and help body return to
normal state after acute stressors
Role of cortisol in stress
Cortisol helps the body manage stress by increasing glucose availability (fuel for the body’s response), supporting energy production, and modulating inflammation.
Cortisol is sometimes referred to as the “stress hormone” because it helps the body cope with stress by enhancing the body’s ability to respond to both acute and chronic stressors.
List all 14 physical symptoms of stress
1) increases in heart rate
and pressure
2) increased adrenaline
and noradrenaline
3) stomach ulcers
4) injuries
5) fatigue
6) death
7) heart disease
8) lung diseases
9) increased sweating
10) skin rashes
11) headaches
12) cancer
13) muscular tension
14) sleep disorders
What are some effects of Prolonged Exposure to Stress
- Suppress cellular immune functioning
- Produces hemodynamic changes (increased heart rate and blood pressure)
- Provoke irregular heart rhythms
- Produce neurochemical imbalances (depression, panic disorder)
- Atherosclerosis: heart attack
- Destruction of neurons in the hippocampus (memory impairment, senility)
List the Psychological Responses to
Stress
- Emotional instability
- Thinking problems:
- problem solving difficulties
- Ruminative thinking: refers to the process of repeatedly and passively focusing on the causes, consequences, and symptoms of negative emotions or events
- Castastrophizing: cognitive distortion where an individual expects or imagines the worst possible outcome in any given situation
- Irrational thoughts
List the 12 Psychological Symptoms of
Stress
1) anxiety, tension,
confusion, & irritability
2) frustration, anger, and
resentment
3) hypersensitivity,
hyperactivity
4) suppression of feelings
5) poor communication
6) withdrawal and
depression
7) feeling isolated and
alienated
8) boredom, job
dissatisfaction
9) mental fatigue, poor
reasoning
10) poor concentration
11) loss of spontaneity &
creativity
12) lowered self-esteem
List the 12 Behavioral Responses to Stress
) procrastination &
avoidance
2) lowered performance
3) increased alcohol &
drug use and abuse
4) intentional acts of
sabotage
5) increased use of
prescription drugs
6) undereating due to
apathy, depression
7) overeating as an escape
8) weight loss
9) increased recklessness,
gambling
10) aggression and
criminal acts
11) poor relations with
family and friends
12) suicide or attempted
suicide
Coping
refers to the strategies and behaviors that individuals use to manage stress, difficult emotions, or challenging situations. It involves how people respond to external and internal stressors in order to reduce negative feelings and maintain psychological well-being
Recognize the importance of individualistic coping mechanisms and the role of belief and expectation
in determining the outcome of a stressful event where impact depends on how event is appraised
Problem focused coping
Is aimed at reducing the demands of the stressful situation or expanding the resources available to deal with the stressor
* E.g., quit job, seek treatment or support, learn new skill to adapt to situation
Person attempts to change the situation
– Try to remove the stressor
– Plan ways of resolving the situation
– Seek advice from others on how to change the situation
Emotion Focused Coping
is aimed at controlling the emotional response to the stressful situation
Behavioral – drugs, distraction, or support
Cognitive – denial, optimism
hardy personality: refers to a set of traits that are associated with resilience and the ability to effectively cope with stress. People with a hardy personality are better able to withstand challenges
Social Support and Stress
Other people can provide social support:
– Two-way communication in which a person can confide their concerns and receive support from others
- Low social support decreases life span
- Social support may work by
– Buffering person against the harmful effects of stress
– Social support is a positive force that reduces susceptibility to stress
List positive coping strategies
- Focused breathing/meditation
- Progressive Muscle relaxation
- Cognitive restructuring
- Visualization and Imagery
- Self hypnosis
- Anger management
- Thought Stopping Procedures
- Stress Inoculation Training
- Assertiveness Training/Social Skills Training
- Time Management
Examples of Affirmations (Benson, 1995)
- I can handle this
I accept myself as I am
I am peaceful
I am becoming healthy and strong
Let it be
I am doing the best that I can
How do affirmations help
through repetition and imagination you can speak directly to your own unconscious mind (which takes everything you say as truth and creates your belief system about the way the world works)
effective affirmations are
1) stated in the positive
2) written down on paper
3) posted everywhere for repeated viewing
Benson & Friedman three-legged model for supporting health and healing
Pharmaceuticals represent the first “leg” of health care, focusing on the use of medications and drugs to treat diseases, symptoms, and conditions. Western medicine often relies on pharmaceutical interventions for their quick and targeted impact
second “leg” consists of surgical interventions and medical procedures. These can range from minor outpatient surgeries to major surgeries like heart bypass operations or organ transplants
Self-Care (The Missing Leg): a component often overlooked or underappreciated in traditional Western medicine. This involves the inner development of the whole person and nurturing beliefs and practices that promote healing from within. Practices like meditation, mindfulness, stress management, and the cultivation of positive mental and emotional health can significantly impact the body’s ability to heal
Traditional Western medicine often focuses on
symptom treatment and disease management, while neglecting the mental, emotional, and spiritual aspects of healing.
Benson believes that older Eastern traditions are efficient: have long recognized the importance of inner development and the cultivation of mental and spiritual health for physical healing. Practices such as meditation, yoga, acupuncture, and Tai Chi are integral to many Eastern healing systems, all of which focus on maintaining balance and harmony within the body and mind.
List some prominent figures that have advocated for integrating Eastern practices with Western medicine to create a more comprehensive approach to health
Deepak Chopra
Andrew Weil
Jon Kabat-Zinn
Explain the Biopsychosocial model of Health Psychology.
-it maintains the premises and practices of the medical model by looking at biological problems, but also takes into account the importance of psychological and social factors for proper assessment, diagnosis, and treatment for both mental and medical disorders
