Lecture 13 Flashcards
Attributions
* Internal vs. External
Internal: to explaining behaviour in terms of personal factors such as traits, abilities
External: involves explaining behaviour in terms of situational or external factors, like luck, the environment, or other people’s actions
Attributions
Stability
Stability: Whether the cause of the behaviour is seen as stable: inherent traits or abilities or unstable: mood/effort
Attributions
* Fundamental Attribution Error
FAE: cognitive bias where people tend to overemphasize internal factors (dispositional causes) and underestimate external factors (situational causes) when explaining others’ behaviour
Attributions
* Defensive Attribution
- Defensive attributions are a tendency to blame (make internal attributions about) victims for their misfortunes, so that one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way. E.g., blaming a rape victim for the clothes she wore or blaming a mugging victim for being out so late, etc..
- People use defensive attributions to create an illusion of safety and to avoid confronting the ugly reality that bad things happen to good people for no reason
Attributions
* Self-serving Bias
Self serving: tendency to attribute our own successes to internal factors (e.g., our skills or hard work) and our failures to external factors
Attributions
* Individualism vs. Collectivism
Individualism: refers to cultures or social systems that prioritize the individual over the group. People in individualistic societies tend to focus on personal achievements and autonomy
Collectivism: values the needs and goals of the group over those of the individual. In collectivist cultures, behaviour is often interpreted in the context of group harmony and interdependence.
The justification of effort
If someone works hard to attain a goal, the goal will be more attractive than to the individual who achieves the same goal with no effort
Hazing
example of the Justification of Effort in action. In many groups or organizations, individuals are made to undergo tough, humiliating, or painful initiation processes (e.g., physical tasks, embarrassing rituals) before they can become part of the group. After enduring these hardships, participants often report feeling a greater sense of loyalty
Basic training
intense physical and emotional challenges faced by recruits are seen as a way to “prepare” them for the challenges ahead. After completing basic training, recruits often have a stronger attachment to their military unit, viewing the group and their accomplishments with more pride and respect
Charging Money for Pound Puppies
refers to a phenomenon observed when items or services are perceived as more valuable if people have to “pay the price” or put in effort to obtain them
“pound puppy” (a pet, often associated with lower costs in a shelter) becomes more attractive when people have to pay a fee for it
Aronson and Mills (1959) Sex Discussion Group with an Embarrassing Initiation
conducted a classic experiment to illustrate the Justification of Effort. In this study, participants were asked to undergo either a mild or severe initiation before joining a discussion group about sex. Those who endured the severe initiation rated the discussion group as more interesting and worthwhile than those who had undergone the mild initiation.
Why Do Behaviours Change
Attitudes?
* Self-Presentation (Impression Management)
Self-presentation refers to the process by which people try to control the image they project to others. It’s the way individuals behave to influence how others perceive them, which often leads them to act in ways that are consistent with social expectations or personal goals.
Attitude Change via Self-Presentation: To create a favorable impression, individuals may change their attitudes to align with the behaviors they think will make them more socially acceptable or admirable
Why Do Behaviours Change
Attitudes?
Self-Justification (Cognitive Dissonance)
Cognitive Dissonance refers to the mental discomfort that occurs when there is an inconsistency between one’s beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. People are motivated to reduce this discomfort, and one way to do this is by changing their attitudes to match their behaviors.
Attitude Change via Self-Justification: When a person engages in behavior that contradicts their existing attitudes, cognitive dissonance arises. To resolve this discomfort, they may change their attitude to justify the behavior.
Why Do Behaviours Change
Attitudes?
Self-Perception
proposed by Daryl Bem) suggests that people often infer their own attitudes from their behavior. This theory posits that when people are unsure of their attitudes, they look at their actions and the context in which they occurred to infer how they must feel.
Attitude Change via Self-Perception: According to this theory, if someone engages in a behavior that they don’t initially have an attitude toward, they may change their attitude to align with the behavior after observing it
Conformity and obedience
Asch experiment vs Milgram experiment
Asch Experiment (Conformity): how people yield to social pressure to match the behavior of others. found that people often conformed to the incorrect group answers, even when the correct answer was obvious. About 37% of participants conformed to the wrong answer at least once. This demonstrated how social pressure could lead individuals to conform, even when they knew the correct answer.
Milgram experiment (obedience): wanted to understand how ordinary people could commit harmful actions. found that 65% of participants administered the highest level of shock (450 volts), even though they believed the learner was in severe distress. The results demonstrated that people tend to obey authority figures even when it conflicts with their personal morals and when they are aware that their actions are causing harm.
The difference a symbol of authority makes e.g., a lab coat
One key finding from Milgram’s experiment and other research on obedience is that symbols of authority (such as a lab coat or uniform) can increase compliance and obedience. Studies have shown that people are more likely to obey when they are in the presence of authority figures who carry symbols of power (such as uniforms, lab coats, or badges).
The Nurse’s Obedience Experiment (Less Compliance When Drug is Familiar and Consultation Is Possible)
Nurses were asked to administer an incorrect dose of medication to a patient, as instructed by a doctor over the phone. However, the nurses’ level of obedience varied depending on the situation. Familiarity with the task and the ability to seek social support (from others) can reduce obedience. This highlights that when people feel more competent or can get advice, they are more likely to resist inappropriate authority commands.
Knowledge and Social Support Increase the Likelihood of Resistance to Authority
People who are knowledgeable about a subject or situation are less likely to blindly follow authority. In the nurse’s experiment, for example, knowing the correct dosage of the medication empowered the nurse to resist an unjustified order.
Norm formation
refers to the process by which groups and societies develop and establish shared expectations or rules of behavior that are considered acceptable. These norms can govern everything from social behavior to cultural practices and rituals
Norms can be arbitrary
Norms are not always based on inherent logic or necessity. They can be arbitrary, meaning they don’t necessarily have a practical or rational foundation.
For example, the use of the right hand for greeting people (e.g., shaking hands) is arbitrary. There’s no inherent reason why this should be the case—it’s simply a social convention.
Norms can be pervasive
Norms are pervasive, meaning they influence almost every aspect of our daily lives. From the way we dress, to how we speak in public, to how we interact with others, norms shape our behavior in almost all settings.
For example, personal space norms—how close people stand to each other in different cultures—are pervasive across social interactions
Norms can be unintentional
Norms often form without anyone intentionally planning or enforcing them. Over time, behavior becomes standardized as people naturally conform to the expectations of their group or society.
For example, in a workplace, dress codes can evolve without formal rules being written. People begin to dress similarly because they observe what is considered “appropriate” attire.
Norm Violation Example
Imagine you’re in an elevator, and all the other passengers are facing forward. If you decide to face backward and stare at the back of the elevator, people may feel uncomfortable or confused. This is a norm violation because there’s an unwritten expectation that everyone in the elevator will face forward. By facing backward, you’re violating the norm of how people are expected to behave in an elevator, which can make others feel uneasy.
Categorizing self descriptions into group and non group identifications
Group Identifications: These are self-descriptions that define who we are in terms of the groups to which we belong. These groups can be based on social, cultural, professional, or demographic categories.
Non-Group Identifications: These self-descriptions reflect aspects of the self that are not tied to group membership but focus on the individual traits or personal characteristics. These are related to how we see ourselves as unique individuals, separate from larger social categories.
What is a Group?
A group is defined as a collection of individuals who are connected by a shared identity, goal, or set of characteristics. A group typically involves social interaction, a sense of belonging, and mutual influence among its members
Schutz’s (1958) Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation (FIRO) Theory - Why do we form groups
people have three primary interpersonal needs
- Inclusion refers to the need to be included, accepted, and recognized by others. It involves the desire for belongingness—to be part of a group, whether it’s a family, a team, a community, or any other form of social group.
- Control refers to the need to influence others, take leadership roles, or have a sense of personal power and autonomy within a group. It involves the desire for power, status, and influence.
-Affection refers to the need for close, emotional bonds with others. It involves the desire for warmth, love, and connection with people.
Psychological needs for group formation
- Belongingness and Social Connection: Humans have an innate need to feel connected to others and be part of a group. This sense of belonging provides emotional support, validation, and acceptance
- Support and Security: Groups provide emotional, psychological, and sometimes physical support. For example, social groups often offer comfort in times of stress, loss, or uncertainty.
- Affiliation and Social Influence: People seek to affiliate with others who share similar interests, values, or goals. This need for affiliation drives group formation as individuals come together to align with others who validate and share their perspectives
- Self esteem: Being part of a group can enhance an individual’s self-esteem. Groups often provide positive feedback, praise, and recognition, which help individuals feel valued and respected
Negative aspects of group behaviour
- Conformity, obedience,
diffusion of responsibility: In groups, individuals may feel less personally responsible for actions or outcomes, assuming that others will take responsibility
de-individuation: refers to the loss of self-awareness and personal accountability in a group setting, often leading to behaviour that individuals might not engage in alone
panic
the risky shift: phenomenon occurs when groups make more risky decisions than individuals would on their own
groupthink: happens when the desire for harmony or conformity in a group leads to poor decision-making
anonymity: may feel less accountable for their actions, which can encourage negative behaviours
social loafing: tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone
Positive aspects of group behaviour
- Social, moral, and language development, sense of
membership and identity, charity, emotional comfort, support,
social facilitation: Individuals often perform better when others are present
cooperation,
survival: Throughout history, humans have relied on group cooperation for hunting, gathering, defense, and reproduction. The need for mutual aid and protection is still central to our social behaviour
Collective behavior
refers to how people behave in large groups, especially when they are not influenced by the usual social norms or constraints that guide behavior in smaller, more structured groups. Collective behavior often arises in situations where individuals in a group lose their sense of identity and personal accountability
Deindividuation
a psychological state in which individuals lose their sense of self-awareness and personal responsibility, often when they feel anonymous in a group setting. When people are deindividuated, they are less likely to evaluate their actions and are more prone to act in ways that align with the group’s behavior, rather than their own values or norms.
mob mentality
refers to the behavior exhibited by a group of people who are acting in unison, often impulsively and without rational thought, especially when fueled by deindividuation and high emotional arousal. When people lose their individual identity in a crowd, they may engage in behavior they would not typically consider, including violent or destructive actions.
When combined with high states of arousal and a diffusion of responsibility it can create a
mob mentality, disinhibiting violent
and unacceptable behavior
Riots
social phenomena that involve a group of people engaging in collective, often violent, behavior.
Convergence theory in riots
Convergence theory suggests that only certain types of individuals, particularly those predisposed to violent behavior or extreme actions, are drawn together in situations like riots. The idea behind convergence theory is that people who have a common predisposition (such as a tendency for aggression, frustration, or rebellion) are more likely to converge in one place and act together.
Contagion theory in riots
Once a few individuals engage in violent or extreme behavior, contagion theory suggests that their actions spread through the crowd like an emotional or behavioral contagion. This means that violent or disruptive behaviors can escalate as they “infect” others in the crowd, who might initially have no intention of engaging in such actions but are influenced by the group dynamic
Norms of callousness or cynicism in riots
As violence spreads through a crowd, a norm of callousness or cynicism can develop. This norm refers to a shift in social values and behavior where acts of violence or destruction are seen as acceptable or even necessary within the context of the riot. This new “norm” can make extreme actions seem fitting or justified under the circumstances.
Negative collective behaviour
lynchings: group of individuals with similar prejudices, frustrations, or justifications for their actions may come together to commit acts of violence
Riots
Police beatings: convergence theory helps explain how certain officers who are already prone to using excessive force or who hold prejudiced views might be drawn to such situations, increasing the likelihood of brutal actions
Positive collective behaviour
Cheering at sports events: fans who already share a passion for a particular team or sport. When these fans come together, their collective excitement and enthusiasm can amplify their feelings, creating a positive, celebratory environment
Pop icons: People who already have an interest in a particular celebrity, cause, or cultural phenomenon are likely to gather in large groups, where their excitement or passion for the subject can spread and amplify
Why is deindividuation not enough to explain things like riots, sports events
Deindividuation can help explain why people in large crowds might engage in behaviors they would normally avoid—such as aggression, violence, or risky actions—because the anonymity of the crowd reduces personal accountability. However, deindividuation alone does not fully explain all forms of collective behavior. Convergence theory fills in the gaps, showing that it is not just the crowd that causes certain behaviors, but rather the types of people who are drawn to these situations in the first place. People with similar motivations, predispositions, or psychological tendencies are more likely to engage in extreme actions when they are in the right collective environment
Thought experiment results: If you could do anything humanly possible
with complete assurance that you would not be detected or held in any way responsible, what would you do?
about 36% would engage in antisocial behaviors, which are harmful, illegal, or unethical actions
robbing a bank is the most frequently reported action in such surveys suggests that the idea of immediate financial gain without consequences is a powerful motivator.
around 19% report wanting to engage in non-normative behaviors, which are actions that deviate from social conventions but are not necessarily harmful or illegal. These could include activities like breaking social taboos, challenging societal norms
36% would engage in neutral behaviors, which could include actions that benefit the individual personally, but don’t harm others. These might be actions like eating or drinking excessively, skipping work
9% of participants reported that they would engage in prosocial behaviors. These are actions that benefit others, such as donating to charity, helping someone in need, or doing something kind without fear of judgment
