Chapter 8

Question 1

Define cognition

Answer 1

The way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing

Question 2

Define Artificial intelligence

Answer 2

A scientific field that focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people

Question 3

Define thinking

Answer 3

The process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically or creatively

Question 4

Define concepts

Answer 4

Mental categories that are used to group objects, events, and characteristics

Question 5

Prototype model

Answer 5

A model emphasizing that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept they compare the item with the most typical item(s) in that category and look for a “family resemblance” with that item’s properties

Question 6

Define problem solving

Answer 6

The mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available

Question 7

Sub goals (Problem solving strategy #1)

Answer 7

Intermediate goals or intermediate problems devised to put the individual in a better position for reaching the final goal or solution

Question 8

Algorithms (Problem solving strategy #2)

Answer 8

Strategies—including formulas, instructions, and the testing of all possible solutions—that guarantee a solution to a problem

Question 9

Heuristics (Problem solving strategy #3)

Answer 9

Shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer

Question 10

Define fixation

Answer 10

Using a prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh new perspective

Question 11

functional fixedness

Answer 11

Failing to solve a problem as a result of fixation on a thing’s usual functions

Question 12

Define reasoning

Answer 12

The mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions

Question 13

What are the two types of reasoning

Answer 13

Inductive reasoning: Reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations
Deductive reasoning: Reasoning from a general principle that is known to be true to a specific instance

Question 14

Define decision making

Answer 14

The mental activity of evaluating alternatives and choosing among them

Question 15

What are the different types of biases in human decision making?

Answer 15

Loss aversion: The tendency to prefer to avoid losses compared to acquiring gains
Confirmation bias: The tendency to search for and use information that supports one’s ideas rather than refutes them
Hindsight bias: The tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that one has accurately predicted an outcome
availability heuristic: A prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events.
base rate neglect: The tendency to ignore statistical information in favour of very specific but vivid information.
representativeness heuristic: The tendency to make judgments about group membership based on physical appearance or the match between a person and one’s stereotype of a group, rather than on available base rate information.

Question 16

Divergent thinking vs convergent thinking

Answer 16

Divergent: Thinking that produces many solutions to the same problem
Convergent: Thinking that produces the single best solution to a problem

Question 17

Define intelligence

Answer 17

An all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience