Chapter 8 Flashcards
Define cognition
The way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing
Define Artificial intelligence
A scientific field that focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people
Define thinking
The process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically or creatively
Define concepts
Mental categories that are used to group objects, events, and characteristics
Prototype model
A model emphasizing that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept they compare the item with the most typical item(s) in that category and look for a “family resemblance” with that item’s properties
Define problem solving
The mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available
Sub goals (Problem solving strategy #1)
Intermediate goals or intermediate problems devised to put the individual in a better position for reaching the final goal or solution
Algorithms (Problem solving strategy #2)
Strategies—including formulas, instructions, and the testing of all possible solutions—that guarantee a solution to a problem
Heuristics (Problem solving strategy #3)
Shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer
Define fixation
Using a prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh new perspective
functional fixedness
Failing to solve a problem as a result of fixation on a thing’s usual functions
Define reasoning
The mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions
What are the two types of reasoning
Inductive reasoning: Reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations
Deductive reasoning: Reasoning from a general principle that is known to be true to a specific instance
Define decision making
The mental activity of evaluating alternatives and choosing among them
What are the different types of biases in human decision making?
Loss aversion: The tendency to prefer to avoid losses compared to acquiring gains
Confirmation bias: The tendency to search for and use information that supports one’s ideas rather than refutes them
Hindsight bias: The tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that one has accurately predicted an outcome
availability heuristic: A prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events.
base rate neglect: The tendency to ignore statistical information in favour of very specific but vivid information.
representativeness heuristic: The tendency to make judgments about group membership based on physical appearance or the match between a person and one’s stereotype of a group, rather than on available base rate information.
Divergent thinking vs convergent thinking
Divergent: Thinking that produces many solutions to the same problem
Convergent: Thinking that produces the single best solution to a problem
Define intelligence
An all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience
triarchic theory of intelligence
Sternberg’s theory that intelligence comes in three forms: analytical, creative, and practical
What does Howard Gardner suggest?
There are 9 types of intelligence
What are the 9 types of intelligence described by howard
Verbal: Ability to think in words and use language; author, speaker
Mathematical: Ability to carry out mathematical operations; engineer, accountant
Spatial: Ability to think three dimensionally; architect
Bodily-kinesthetic: Ability to manipulate objects; surgeon
Musical: Ability to be sensitive to pitch, melody, rhythm; musician
Interpersonal: Ability to interact effectively with others; teacher
Intrapersonal: Ability to understand oneself; psychologist
Naturalist: Ability to observe patterns in nature; farmer
Existentialist: Ability to grapple with big questions of human existence; philosopher
Validity vs reliability
Validity: The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.
Reliability: The extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance
List the basic properties of language
Phonology: A language’s sound system
Morphology: A language’s rules for word formation
Syntax: A language’s rules for combining words to form acceptable phrases and sentences
Semantics: The meaning of words and sentences in a particular language
Pragmatics: The useful character of language and the ability of language to communicate even more meaning than is verbalized
Linguistic relativity hypothesis
Language determines the way we think
Define cognitive appraisal
Interpreting the events and experiences in one’s life as harmful and threatening, or as challenging, and determining whether one has the resources to cope effectively
Define cognitive reappraisal
Regulating one’s feelings about an experience by reinterpreting that experience or thinking about it in a different way or from a different angle
