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Psych100 > Chapter 3 > Flashcards

Chapter 3 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the nervous system thought of as

A

The major controlling and communicating system of the body

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2
Q

Goal of neuroscience

A

To understand the nervous system: how it develops and changes and how it’s affected by various drugs and diseases

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3
Q

What are neurons?

A

Assembly of interconnected cells that form a complex web of connections that pulse with electrical and chemical energy and are used for receiving, processing and communicating information

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4
Q

What 4 characteristics allow the brain and the rest of the nervous system to command behaviour

A

Complexity, adaptability, integration and electrochemical transmission

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5
Q

Define synapses

A

Tiny spaces between neurons where the gaps are referred to as synaptic gaps or clefts . Used for neuron to neuron connection

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6
Q

Define the connectome project

A

A term coined in reference to the genome and aims to create a highly detailed map of all the connections of a nervous system across several species

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7
Q

How are neurons integrated in our daily lives through their structural arrangements and patterns of activity?

A

The structural arrangements of connections among neurons are your memories whereas the pattern of activity among neurons serve as the basis of your consciousness, emotions, personality and more

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8
Q

Define integration

A

The brain receives information through multiple sources, analyzes the information and releases a response. Does it by extracting patterns of incoming data and using past experiences, your knowledge and current emotions to integrate

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9
Q

Why is the brain considered the ultimate organ of adaptability?

A

Due to its ability to change and reorganize itself throughout a person’s life

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10
Q

What is neuroplasticity?

A

A process that allows the brain to constantly adjust to new experiences and form new neural connections which can lead to improved function

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11
Q

Define hippocampus

A

The structure in the limbic system that has a special role in the storage of memories

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12
Q

Define acquired savant syndrome

A

Individuals gaining special skills or talents after suffering brain injury or disease

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13
Q

What is electrochemical transmission?

A

Information processing system powered by electrical impulses and chemical messengers
An impulse travels down a neuron electrically and communicates with the next neuron using chemicals

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14
Q

Define afferent (sensory) nerves

A

Carry information from sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. Pathways communicate information about the external environment (phone vibrations) and internal conditions (hunger)

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15
Q

Define efferent (motor) nerves

A

Communicate information from the brain and spinal cord to the other areas of the body such as muscles and glands

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16
Q

What are the 2 primary divisions of the human nervous system?

A

Central nervous system and peripheral nervous system

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17
Q

What are the components of the central nervous system

A

Spinal cord

Brain
- Hindbrain: cerebellum, medulla, pons
- Midbrain: reticular formation
- forebrain: limbic system, hypothalamus, cerebral cortex, basal ganglia

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18
Q

What are the components of the peripheral nervous system?

A

Somatic nervous system
- sensory nerves
- Motor nerves

Autonomic nervous system
- parasympathetic branch: calms the body
- sympathetic branch: arouses the body

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19
Q

What does the somatic nervous system control?

A

Sensory and motor neurons

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20
Q

What does the autonomic nervous system control?

A

Monitors organs for processes such as breathing, heart rate and digestion

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21
Q

Define the peripheral nervous system

A

Network of nerves that connects the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body and its function is to bring information to and from the brain and spinal cord

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22
Q

Which nervous system is involved in the fight or flight response

A

The sympathetic nervous system

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23
Q

Which nervous system is associated with the “rest and digest” response

A

Parasympathetic nervous system

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24
Q

In an emergency, what does the sympathetic nervous system do?

A

Trigger the body’s release of powerful hormones such as stress hormones that allow you to focus all your attention on what needs to be done at the current moment

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25
Q

The average volume of the human brain is roughly

A

1300 cubic centimetres

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26
Q

2 major classes of cells in the nervous system

A

The neuron and the glial cell

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27
Q

How are glial cells critical to brain function

A

Provide support, nutritional benefits, protection. Help neurons run faster and more efficiently
The “glue” that holds the nervous system together

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28
Q

What brain disorders may glial cells play a critical role in if they don’t function properly?

A

Alzheimer’s disease, chronic pain, epilepsy

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29
Q

What are the 5 common features of a neuron

A

Cell body
Dendrites
Axon
Axon terminals
Cell membrane

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30
Q

Function of a cell body in a neuron

A

Metabolic and genetic hub of the neuron
Contains machinery necessary for maintaining neuron function such as enzymes and structural proteins
Houses the nucleus which contains sequences of DNA that determine structural and functional properties of neurons

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31
Q

What factors can impair the ability to form and store new memories?

A

Sleep deprivation, stress, alcohol consumption and more

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32
Q

Define dendrites

A

Branchlike fibres projecting from a neuron which receive information and orient it towards the neuron’s cell body

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33
Q

What do dendrites increase?

A

Surface area of the neuron which provides multiple sites for synaptic contact

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34
Q

What neuro developmental disorders are associated with alterations in dendrite shape, size and number

A

Down syndrome, Alzheimer’s disease, schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorder

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35
Q

Define axon

A

The part of the neuron that carries information away from the cell body toward other cells

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36
Q

Define action potential

A

The brief wave of positive electrical charge that sweeps down the axon

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37
Q

What does the axon use for transmission of information?

A

Action potentials

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38
Q

Define synaptic boutons

A

Small, bulb shaped structures at the end of an axon where chemicals are stored and released to affect the functioning of neighbouring neurons

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39
Q

Define cell membrane

A

A thin specialized boundary that maintains the cell’s integrity

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40
Q

Define myelin sheaths

A

Speed up transmission of nerve impulses by insulating axons

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41
Q

Why is the cell membrane necessary?

A

Serves as a barrier between the interior and surrounding environment

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42
Q

What are ions?

A

Particles that come from atoms that have either gained (negatively charged) or lost (positively charged) one or more electrons

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43
Q

Which ions carry positive charges and which carry negative charges?

A

Sodium and potassium carry positive charged while chloride is negatively charged

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44
Q

Describe the movement of ions?

A

Since ions and other molecules are distributed unevenly throughout the membrane, they will want to move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration. This process is called diffusion

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45
Q

Describe the movement of ions?

A

Since ions and other molecules are distributed unevenly throughout the membrane, they will want to move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration. This process is called diffusion

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46
Q

Define selective permeability

A

The membrane selectively allows certain molecules and ions to pass while restricting the movement of others

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47
Q

When the neuron is not transmitting information….

A

It is in resting state

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48
Q

Due to separation of ions across the membrane, the cell is said to be

A

Electrically polarized

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49
Q

Define resting potential

A

The stable, negative charge of an inactive neuron

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50
Q

What produces a neuron’s resting potential?

A

When the fluid outside the neuron is rich in sodium ions but low in potassium whereas the fluid inside the neuron is high in potassium and low in sodium. At rest, the neuron is more selectively permeable to potassium allowing it to flow out and also slightly permeable to sodium allowing it to flow in

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51
Q

How does the sodium potassium pump maintain proper ion concentrations

A

Pump moves in 2K+ ions while ejecting 3 Na+ ions

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52
Q

Define neurotransmitters

A

Chemical messengers (molecules) released into the synapses that allow the nervous system to send messages between neurons or from neurons to muscles

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53
Q

What is the voltage of the axon membrane at rest

A

-70 mV

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54
Q

How is the action potential triggered?

A

Neurons can either release excitatory or inhibitory inputs, if the sum of excitatory inputs exceeds the sum of inhibitory inputs, the axon might be sufficient to change its resting potential and generate an action potential

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55
Q

Define depolarization

A

When the axon becomes more positive and is reduced to a less negative value of around -50mV. If resting potential was -70, the axon must be depolarizer by at least 20mV

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56
Q

Define axon hillock

A

The spot where the action potential is generated and has a higher concentration of Na+ and K+ channels than anywhere else

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57
Q

What causes electrical changes??

A

The movements of sodium and potassium ions into and out of the axon

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58
Q

Define refractory period

A

“Time out” - ensures that a neuron is not generating another action potential too quickly

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59
Q

Summarize the electrical activity of neurons

A
  1. Resting potential: maintains a small negative change of -70mV
  2. Action potential: when the neuron is stimulated by the release of neurotransmitters, it fires allowing the channels to open and sodium to rush in resulting in a positive charge
  3. Refractory period: sodium ions exit until it reaches resting potential
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60
Q

A fatty substance that surrounds some axons and is a poor conductor of electricity preventing electrical currents from leaking out

A

Myelin sheath

61
Q

Define nodes

A

Non myelinated areas along the axon that contain a very high concentration of voltage gated Na+ and K+ channels - membrane needs to be depolarized at these nodes

62
Q

True or false: action potentials move more rapidly if they leap from node to node

A

True

63
Q

Define multiple sclerosis

A

Degenerative disease of the nervous system in which myelin tissue hardens disrupting neuronal communication

64
Q

How does information travel between neurons?

A

Axon of presynaptic meets dendrites of postsynaptic where then synaptic vesicles are released containing neurotransmitters which open the channels on the postsynaptic neuron allowing the neuron to fire

65
Q

Explain the 5 steps involved in synaptic transmission

A
  1. Action potential arrives at the presynaptic terminal
  2. Neurotransmitters are synthesized and stored into vesicles
  3. The depolarization from action potentials opens voltage gated ca2+ channels
  4. Ca2+ causes neurotransmitter release
  5. Neurotransmitter binds to receptors causing channels to open or close and reuptake transmitters bring neurotransmitter from synapse back into presynaptic terminal for recycling
    Excessive neurotransmitter release causes the neuron to stop firing
66
Q

What do the enzymes in the synaptic cleft do?

A

Chemically break down the neurotransmitter

67
Q

How do drugs work on neurotransmitters?

A

Prevents the reuptake of certain transmitters which increases levels of that transmitter in the synaptic cleft

68
Q

Define neurotransmitters

A

Any substance that is released at a synapse by a neuron and can affect another neuron or cell (muscle, gland)

69
Q

Define acetylcholine

A

Involved in muscle contractions, learning, memory and attention. Individuals with Alzheimer’s disease have an acetylcholine deficiency

70
Q

Define GABA

A

Amino acid found in the CNS and plays a key function by inhibiting many neurons from firing

71
Q

Define glutamate

A

Found in excitatory synapses and plays a key role in stimulating neurons to fire - invoked in learning and memory. Overstimulation of too many neurons can release in migraine and seizures

72
Q

Define norepinephrine

A

Is stimulated by stress, can inhibit the firing of some neurons but simultaneously excite the heart muscle and intestines
Controls alertness and triggers agitation and little quantity has been associated with depression

73
Q

Define dopamine

A

Helps control voluntary movement and affects sleep, mood, attention, learning.
Low levels are associated with Parkinson’s disease

74
Q

Define serotonin

A

Involved in the regulation of sleep and waking activity, mood, attention and learning

75
Q

Define neuropeptides

A

Sequences of amino acids that are enveloped by vesicles and transported to axon terminals. Produce much longer effects on their target cells

76
Q

Define endorphins

A

Natural opiates - Substances that depress nervous system activity and eliminate pain by inhibiting the firing of neurons. Should the body from pain and elevate feelings of pleasure

77
Q

Define oxytocin

A

Neuropeptide that plays an important role in the experience of love and social bonding - powerful surge released in mothers that have given birth and is used for lactation (milk production) for breast feeding

78
Q

If the average duration of a neuron’s refractory period is 100 milliseconds or 0.1 seconds. How many action potentials are triggered in one second

A

10 action potentials

1000ms/ 100ms = 10

79
Q

Where is the hind brain located

A

Skull’s rear, lowest portion of brain

80
Q

Main parts of the hindbrain

A

Medulla, cerebellum and pons

81
Q

Define cerebral cortex

A

Wrinkled outer layer of forebrain, governs higher brain functions such as thinking and learning

82
Q

Define Amygdala

A

Involved in fear and discrimination of objects necessary for organism’s survival

83
Q

Define pons

A

Governs sleep and arousal

84
Q

Define reticular formation

A

Diffuse collection of neurons involved in arousal and stereotyped patterns such as walking

85
Q

Define cerebellum

A

Rounded structure involved in motor coordination

86
Q

Define medulla

A

Governs breathing and reflexes

87
Q

Define thalamus

A

Relates information between lower and higher brain centres

88
Q

Master gland of limbic system

A

Pituitary gland - is triggered by the hypothalamus

89
Q

Define pituitary gland

A

Regulates the hypothalamus and other glands through the release of hormones - plays a role in controlling growth and physical maturing

90
Q

Define paraplegia

A

Inability to voluntarily move the lower parts of the body

91
Q

Major Life support system of brain

A

The medulla since it controls and coordinates vital functions such as breathing and digestion

92
Q

Brain stem consists of

A

Medulla, pons and midbrain

93
Q

Damage to the cerebellum can lead to

A

Poor performance of coordinated movements

94
Q

The midbrain located between the hindbrain and forebrain relays information where?

A

Between the brain, eyes and ears

95
Q

Define substantia nigra

A

One of the main structures responsible for the production of dopamine, damage can lead to Parkinson’s disease

96
Q

Definition of limbic system

A

Group of structures in the brain that regulate emotion, behaviour and memory

97
Q

What is the function of the thalamus?

A

Process, sort and relay information to the appropriate places in the forebrain involved in sensation, motor actions and emotions

98
Q

Define the basal ganglia

A

Large neuron clusters located above the thalamus and under the cerebral cortex that work with the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements

99
Q

Define limbic system

A

Loosely connected network of structures that is the border between the cortex and the thalamus - important for memory and emotion with 2 important principal structures being amygdala and hippocampus

100
Q

Where is amygdala located

A

Temporal lobe

101
Q

What is the neocortex

A

The outermost part of the cerebral cortex

102
Q

What do the left and right hemispheres of the brain do?

A

The left hemisphere is involved in complex language processing and production and also problem solving and critical thinking whereas the right hemisphere is often linked to spatial awareness, creativity, humour and more

103
Q

What does brain lateralization mean?

A

When one cerebral hemisphere tends to be more dominant over the other on a specific ability

104
Q

Define corpus callosum

A

The large bundle of axons that connects the brain’s two hemispheres - responsible for relating information between the two sides

105
Q

What are the 4 neocortical lobes

A

Occipital
Parietal
Temporal
Frontal

106
Q

Define occipital lobes

A

Structures located at the back of the head that respond to visual stimuli

107
Q

Define parietal lobes

A

Structures are the top and toward the rear of the head that are involved in registering spatial location, attention and motor control

108
Q

Define parietal lobes

A

Structures are the top and toward the rear of the head that are involved in registering spatial location, attention and motor control

109
Q

Define somatosensory cortex

A

A region in the cerebral cortex that processes information about body sensations, located at the front of the parietal lobes

110
Q

Define somatosensory cortex

A

A region in the cerebral cortex that processes information about body sensations, located at the front of the parietal lobes

111
Q

Define spatial neglect

A

An inability to orient, respond to or report stimuli presented to the opposite side of the body from a lesion; most common after right parietal or cortical injury in which the person will ignore the objects presented to the left side of the body

112
Q

Define spatial neglect

A

An inability to orient, respond to or report stimuli presented to the opposite side of the body from a lesion; most common after right parietal or cortical injury in which the person will ignore the objects presented to the left side of the body

113
Q

What are the temporal lobes?

A

Located above the ears and are involved in hearing, language processing and memory - multiple connections to limbic system so damage can lead to difficulty in the transfer of experiences into long term memory

114
Q

What are the frontal lobes?

A

The portions of the cerebral cortex behind the forehead that are involved in personality, intelligence and the control of voluntary muscles

115
Q

Define motor cortex

A

A region in the cerebral cortex that processes information about voluntary movement - located behind the front lobes

116
Q

What is the prefrontal cortex

A

Inhibit irrelevant or inappropriate responses

117
Q

What is the insula

A

The region of the brain that represents the internal organs such as the stomach, heart and intestines. It is important for taste, sensations and emotions

118
Q

Define brain lesioning

A

Involves experimentally damaging brain tissue in non human animals through either surgically removing parts of the brain

119
Q

Valuable tools for examining brain structure

A

MRI and CT scans

120
Q

What is used to record brain activity

A

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

121
Q

What is the endocrine system?

A

The body system consisting of a set of glands that regulates the activities of certain organs by releasing their chemical products into the blood stream

122
Q

Define glands

A

Organs or tissues in the body that create chemicals that control many body functions

123
Q

Examples of endocrine glands

A

Pancreas, ovaries, testes, pituitary

124
Q

Define hormones

A

Chemical messengers that are produced by the endocrine glands and carried by the bloodstream to all parts of the body

125
Q

Define pineal gland

A

The gland near the centre of the brain that secretes melatonin to regulate sleep and some reproductive organs

126
Q

True or false: melatonin is a light sensitive compound

A

True

127
Q

Define thyroid gland

A

A butterfly shaped gland in the neck that is involved in metabolism

Creator note: (My gland must be small because my metabolism is so bad)

128
Q

Define parathyroid

A

Behind the thyroid, 4 small glands in the neck that control the body’s calcium levels

129
Q

Define thymus

A

A gland located between the lungs that is critical to the immune system of infants and children

130
Q

Define adrenal glands

A

Glands at the top of each kidney that are responsible for regulating mood, energy level and the ability to cope with stress

131
Q

Define pancreas

A

A dual purpose gland under the stomach that performs both digestive and endocrine functions

132
Q

What does insulin control

A

Blood glucose levels

133
Q

Define ovaries and testes

A

Ovaries: Sex related endocrine glands that produce hormones involved in female sexual development and reproduction
Testes: sex related endocrine glands that produce hormones involved in male sexual development

134
Q

Which chemical precursor is important for the production of melatonin

A

Serotonin

135
Q

Three processes that allow the damaged brain to be repaired

A

Collateral sprouting: the process by which axons of some healthy neurons adjacent to damaged cells grow new branches
Substitution of function: the process by which the damaged regions function is taken over by another area of areas of the brain
Neurogenesis: the process involving the generation and integration of new neurons in the neural circuits of the adult brain

136
Q

What are brain grafts

A

Brain tissue implants

137
Q

Define chromosomes

A

Threadlike structures that come in 23 pairs, one member of each pair originating from each parent that contain DNA

138
Q

What are genes

A

Unit of hereditary information

139
Q

What is the dominant recessive genes principle

A

If one gene of a pair is dominant and the other is recessive, the dominate gene overrides the recessive gene. A recessive gene exerts its influence only if both genes of a pair are recessive

140
Q

The field of molecular genetics involves the….

A

Manipulation of genes using technology to determine their effect on behaviourb

141
Q

Define selective breeding

A

Genetic method in which organisms are chosen for reproduction based on how much of a particular trait they display

142
Q

What is behaviour genetics??

A

Study of nature and degree of heredity’s influence on behaviour

143
Q

Define genotype and phenotype

A

Genotype: an individual’s genetic heritage
Phenotype: individual’s observable characteristics

144
Q

What is the CRISPR system used for

A

Gene editing tool

145
Q

Define stress

A

The responses of individuals to environmental stressors

146
Q

Define stressors

A

Circumstances and events that threaten individuals and their coping abilities and cause physiological changes to ready the body to handle stress

147
Q

Define acute stress

A

Occurs in response to an immediate temporary perceived threat

148
Q

Define chronic stress

A

Stress that goes on continuously. Hormones adrenaline and norepinephrine are produced which eventually causes a breakdown of the immune system

Psych100 (10 decks)

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