Chapter 5 Study Questions

Question 1

1. Define British empiricism, and describe its general characteristics.

Answer 1

British empiricism is an epistemological philosophy emphasizing sensory experience as the primary source of knowledge. It contends that knowledge stems exclusively from sensory evidence, excluding innate ideas. This philosophy highlights the association of ideas, both simple and complex, derived from sensory experiences. It also incorporates skepticism regarding the limits of human knowledge and explores the connection between empiricism and morality. Notable British empiricists, such as John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume, greatly influenced modern philosophy, science, psychology, and political thought.

Question 2

2. Briefly describe the life and work of Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)

Answer 2

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) was an influential English philosopher known for his significant contributions to political philosophy and empiricist thought. His life was marked by his education at Oxford and his acquaintance with prominent intellectuals such as Galileo and Descartes.

Question 3

3. Describe Hobbes’s position with respect to empiricism and materialism

Answer 3

Hobbes was aligned with the empiricist tradition, emphasizing the significance of sensory experience as the sole source of knowledge. He rejected the concept of innate ideas and advocated that all ideas stem from sensory experience. Moreover, Hobbes was a materialist, denying the existence of a nonmaterial mind and asserting that mental phenomena could be explained by the stimulation of sense receptors resulting from external body motions

Question 4

4. Describe Hobbes’s position with respect to psychological phenomena (i.e., attention, imagination, dreams, motivation, free will)

Answer 4

Hobbes provided explanations for various psychological phenomena. He attributed attention to the retention of motion by sense organs, explaining the availability of mental imagery and memory through the decay of sense impressions over time. Dreams, for Hobbes, were the products of past sense impressions. He suggested that human behavior is motivated by both appetite (seeking or maintaining pleasurable experiences) and aversion (avoidance or termination of painful experiences). Hobbes adopted a hedonistic theory of motivation, equating good with pleasure and evil with pain. He espoused a deterministic view of human behavior, denying the existence of free will, and defining will as the prevailing action tendency in the face of competing appetites and aversions

Question 5

5. Describe Hobbes’s position with respect to complex thought processes (i.e., trains of thought)

Answer 5

Hobbes posited an explanation for “trains of thought,” emphasizing the concept of association. He proposed that events experienced together are remembered together and subsequently thought of together. This idea of contiguity in mental events was essential in explaining the coherence of thought processes

Question 6

6. Briefly describe the life and work of John Locke (1632–1704)

Answer 6

John Locke (1632–1704) was a prominent English philosopher and physician, best known for his contributions to empiricism and liberalism. He played a pivotal role in the development of modern philosophical thought and greatly influenced the fields of epistemology, political philosophy, and education

Question 7

7. Describe Locke’s position on empiricism

Answer 7

Locke is considered one of the primary figures in British empiricism. He advocated that all knowledge arises from sensory experience and rejected the notion of innate ideas, asserting that the mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa) at birth, acquiring knowledge through experience

Question 8

8. Describe Locke’s position on the mind-body distinction

Answer 8

In contrast to Hobbes’s physical monism, Locke accepted a mind-body dualism, acknowledging the separation between the physical and the mental. He did not delve deeply into the problem of how the physical can affect the mental, suggesting that sensory stimulation somehow leads to the formation of ideas

Question 9

9. Describe Locke’s position on innate ideas

Answer 9

Locke strongly opposed the notion of innate ideas, challenging the prevailing belief that certain ideas are inherently present in the human mind at birth. He argued that humans are not born with any innate ideas, including those related to morality, logic, or mathematics

Question 10

10. Describe Locke’s position on sensation and reflection

Answer 10

Locke posited that all ideas originate from either sensation or reflection. Sensation refers to direct sensory experiences, while reflection involves contemplating the remnants of previous sensory experiences. The mind is passive in receiving sensations but can actively manipulate ideas through reflection

Question 11

11. Describe Locke’s position on simple and complex ideas

Answer 11

Locke distinguished between simple ideas, which are indivisible and directly derived from sensory experiences, and complex ideas, which are combinations of simple ideas formed through mental operations like comparison, abstraction, and reasoning

Question 12

12. Describe Locke’s position on emotions

Answer 12

Locke believed that the fundamental human emotions, including love, desire, joy, hatred, sorrow, anger, fear, despair, envy, shame, and hope, were derived from the two basic feelings of pleasure and pain. He maintained that the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain motivate human behavior

Question 13

13. Describe Locke’s position on primary and secondary qualities

Answer 13

Locke introduced the distinction between primary and secondary qualities of objects. Primary qualities, such as solidity and extension, correspond to physical attributes and produce ideas that accurately reflect the physical world. Secondary qualities, like color and temperature, produce ideas that do not correspond directly to physical attributes

Question 14

14. Describe Locke’s position on association of ideas

Answer 14

While Locke emphasized the role of active reflection in the acquisition of knowledge, he also acknowledged the importance of associative learning. He noted that ideas can become associated either naturally or accidentally, leading to both reasonable and unreasonable beliefs

Question 15

15. Describe Locke’s position on education

Answer 15

Locke’s work “Some Thoughts Concerning Education” emphasized the importance of experiential learning and nurture in the development of individuals. He advocated for a balanced approach to education, stressing the significance of health, moderation, praise, and the avoidance of excessive punishment in the educational process

Question 16

16. Describe Locke’s position on government

Answer 16

Locke’s political philosophy greatly influenced the ideas of liberalism and democracy. He advocated for the social contract theory and government by the consent of the governed. Locke challenged the divine right of kings and emphasized the right of individuals to seek truth independently rather than having it imposed on them. His political writings played a significant role in shaping modern democratic governance, including his influence on the United States Declaration of Independence

Question 17

17. Briefly describe the life and work of George Berkeley (1685–1753)

Answer 17

George Berkeley (1685–1753) was an Irish philosopher whose major works include “A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge” (1710) and “Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous.”

Question 18

18. Describe Berkeley’s ideas with respect to materialism

Answer 18

Berkeley opposed materialism, arguing that matter does not exist and that the physical world is merely perceptions in the mind

Question 19

19. Describe Berkeley’s ideas with respect to “to be is to be perceived”

Answer 19

This phrase encapsulates Berkeley’s philosophy, suggesting that existence is dependent on perception, emphasizing the centrality of perception to the nature of reality

Question 20

20. Describe Berkeley’s ideas with respect to primary and secondary qualities

Answer 20

He rejected the existence of primary qualities, asserting that only secondary qualities, or perceptions, were real. He believed that the physical world consists solely of ideas and perceptions

Question 21

21. Describe Berkeley’s ideas with respect to the existence of external reality

Answer 21

Berkeley proposed that the external reality is dependent on divine perception, making it stable and consistent

Question 22

22. Describe Berkeley’s ideas with respect to the principle of association

Answer 22

He supported the principle of association, asserting that objects were aggregates of sensations consistently associated with one another

Question 23

23. Describe Berkeley’s ideas with respect to his theory of distance perception

Answer 23

Berkeley put forth an empirical theory of distance perception, differing from the prevalent geometric theory, by emphasizing the association of sensations in determining the perception of distance

Question 24

24. Briefly describe the life and work of David Hume (1711–1776)

Answer 24

David Hume, born in Edinburgh, Scotland, was educated at the University of Edinburgh. He authored the Treatise of Human Nature, aiming to introduce the experimental method into moral subjects. His skeptical views on religion, expressed through works like An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, often caused friction with the church

Question 25

25. Describe his goal as a philosopher

Answer 25

His philosophical goal was to establish a science of human nature based on experience and observation. He sought to follow the empirical tradition of philosophers like Occam, Bacon, and Locke, striving to apply a method similar to that of Newton’s natural philosophy in his moral philosophy

Question 26

26. Describe his ideas regarding physical reality and perceptions of it

Answer 26

Hume’s perspective on physical reality emphasized the idea that we can never know it directly but must assume its existence. He distinguished between impressions and ideas, where all simple ideas were derived from previous impressions

Question 27

27. Describe his notion of simple and complex ideas and the imagination

Answer 27

He expounded on the association of ideas, highlighting three laws: resemblance, contiguity, and cause and effect, explaining how beliefs and relationships among ideas are formed through experience

Question 28

28. Describe his account of the association of ideas (including the three laws of association)

Answer 28

In his analysis of causation, Hume disputed the traditional view, positing that causal relationships are based on consistent observations rather than any necessary connection. He emphasized that custom and experience guide human life and behavior rather than reason

Question 29

29. Describe his analysis of causation

Answer 29

In his analysis of causation, Hume disputed the traditional view, positing that causal relationships are based on consistent observations rather than any necessary connection. He emphasized that causal inferences are drawn from specific observations based on contiguity, temporal priority, constant conjunction, and resemblance

Question 30

30. Describe his analysis of mind and self

Answer 30

Regarding the mind and self, Hume proposed that the mind is a collection of perceptions, and the self is inseparable from these perceptions. He argued that beliefs and actions are determined by passions associated with experiences rather than by reason

Question 31

31. Describe his conception of the role of emotions in determining behaviour

Answer 31

Hume suggested that emotions play a crucial role in determining behavior, asserting that the human behavior is motivated by passions associated with experiences of pleasure and pain. He likened human behavior to that of animals, guided by experience of reward and punishment

Question 32

32. Describe his influence on the development of psychology

Answer 32

Hume’s work significantly contributed to the development of psychology by reducing various fields to psychology and emphasizing the importance of empirical knowledge based on experience in guiding human conduct

Question 33

33. Briefly describe the life and work of David Hartley (1705–1757)

Answer 33

David Hartley (1705–1757) was an English philosopher and physician known for his significant contributions to psychology and associationism

Question 34

34. Describe his goal as a philosopher

Answer 34

Hartley aimed to synthesize Newton’s understanding of nerve transmission with the empirical philosophy of Locke. His main goal was to connect the pressing questions of philosophy with contemporary ideas in physiology

Question 35

35. Describe his account of association

Answer 35

Hartley believed that sense impressions caused vibrations in the nerves, which led to corresponding vibrations in the brain’s “medullary substance.” He termed the lingering brain vibrations as vibratiuncles, which represented ideas, weaker copies of sensations

Question 36

36. Describe his notion of simple and complex ideas

Answer 36

Unlike Locke, who believed that complex ideas are formed from simple ideas via reflection, Hartley proposed that all complex ideas are automatically formed by the process of association. He asserted that all ideas, no matter how complex, are composed of sensations, with association being the sole process responsible for their formation

Question 37

37. Describe his application of the laws of association to voluntary behaviour

Answer 37

Hartley used the law of association to explain how involuntary behavior gradually becomes voluntary and then almost involuntary (automatic) again. He believed that all behavior starts as involuntary and becomes voluntary through the process of association. He described how simple actions, when repeated, become associated with specific stimuli, eventually becoming habitual or automatic

Question 38

38. Describe his influence on the development of psychology

Answer 38

Hartley’s work had a profound impact on the study of the biological basis of mental events. Although some of his neurophysiological theories were later proven incorrect, his emphasis on the association of ideas and their correlation with neurophysiological activity paved the way for future research in the field. His brand of associationism became highly influential, setting the stage for the development of psychology for several decades

Question 39

39. Briefly describe the life and work of James Mill (1773–1836)

Answer 39

James Mill (1773–1836) was a Scottish philosopher known for his significant contributions to the field of psychology, particularly associationism

Question 40

40. Describe his positions on the associations and factors that determine the strength of associations

Answer 40

Mill, influenced by Hartley, proposed that the mind is composed of sensations and ideas linked by contiguity. He suggested that the strength of associations is influenced by factors such as vividness and frequency. According to Mill, more vivid sensations or ideas form stronger associations, and more frequently paired sensations and ideas also form stronger associations

Question 41

41.Describe his positions on utilitarianism and hedonism, including Jeremy Bentham’s perspectives

Answer 41

James Mill was closely associated with Jeremy Bentham, a leading proponent of utilitarianism. Utilitarianism was grounded in hedonism, emphasizing pleasure and pain as the basis for human happiness and ethical decision-making. Bentham’s utilitarian views centered on the idea that the best government is one that maximizes happiness for the greatest number of people, with actions being determined through a hedonic calculus that calculates the balance of pleasure and pain

Question 42

42. Summarize James Mill’s influence on psychology

Answer 42

James Mill’s Influence on Psychology: James Mill’s most notable work, “Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind,” is considered a comprehensive summary of associationism. He aimed to provide a detailed account of associationism, building on Hartley’s ideas. Mill’s influence on psychology lay in his conceptualization of the mind as a predictable system of mental elements bound by the laws of association. His ideas marked a significant step in the development of psychology, although his mechanistic view of the mind as passive, with association as the sole organizing process, was later revised by his son, John Stuart Mill

Question 43

43. Briefly describe the life and work of John Stuart Mill (1806–1873)

Answer 43

John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) was a prominent British philosopher and social reformer. He wrote “Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind” in 1829 which contributed significantly to the psychology field

Question 44

44. Describe his philosophy with respect to mental chemistry

Answer 44

Mill, influenced by his father’s associationism, introduced the concept of “mental chemistry,” suggesting that complex ideas can emerge from the fusion of simpler ideas, akin to chemical compounds creating substances different from their elements. This idea challenged his father’s notion of “mental physics” and allowed for the emergence of entirely new ideas not reducible to simple components

Question 45

45. Describe his philosophy with respect to psychology as a science

Answer 45

Mill advocated for the development of psychology as a science, emphasizing the predictability of human thought, feeling, and action based on the principles of associationism. He believed that the mind could be understood through the laws governing the formation of ideas and their associations, aiming to emancipate psychology from the constraints of rigid determinism

Question 46

46. Describe his philosophy with respect to ethology

Answer 46

Mill proposed the concept of ethology, envisioning it as a science of the formation of character. He suggested that ethology should be derived from a fundamental science of human nature, aiming to explain how individual personalities develop under specific circumstances. While his ideas outlined the path for understanding individual differences, the development of ethology as a science was hindered due to the limitations of his theory of human nature, which emphasized the association of ideas over emotional factors

Question 47

47. Describe his philosophy with respect to social reform

Answer 47

Mill was a dedicated social reformer, advocating for various causes such as freedom of speech, representative government, and the emancipation of women. He challenged the prevailing societal norms regarding gender inequality, arguing for the principle of equality between the sexes based on the premise of a sound science of human nature. His utilitarian philosophy, emphasizing the pursuit of the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people, underscored his commitment to social justice and equality

Question 48

48. Briefly describe the life and work of Alexander Bain (1818–1903)

Answer 48

Alexander Bain (1818–1903) was born in Aberdeen, Scotland, and initially worked as a weaver to support his education. Despite facing several rejections in his pursuit of a university appointment, he eventually gained recognition through his seminal works: “The Senses and the Intellect” (1855) and “Emotions and the Will” (1859). Bain is considered one of the earliest pioneers of psychology, and his books are regarded as some of the first true psychology textbooks

Question 49

49. Describe Bain’s goal

Answer 49

Bain proposed a comprehensive view of the mind, incorporating feeling, volition, and intellect. His primary focus was on formulating a systematic understanding of psychological processes. He aimed to provide a comprehensive framework for comprehending mental phenomena

Question 50

50. Describe his laws of association

Answer 50

Bain’s laws of association were heavily influenced by the British empiricists. He emphasized the law of contiguity as the fundamental principle of association, supplemented by the law of frequency. He also incorporated the law of similarity, the law of compound association, and the law of constructive association. These laws highlighted the neurological basis of associations and the creative potential of the mind

Question 51

51. Describe his ideas regarding voluntary behaviour

Answer 51

In terms of voluntary behavior, Bain distinguished between reflexive behavior and spontaneous activity. He emphasized the role of hedonism, asserting that behavior is influenced by the experiences of pleasure and pain. Bain proposed that voluntary behavior is shaped through a process of trial-and-error learning, whereby actions leading to need satisfaction are reinforced and repeated. His ideas closely anticipated the concept of operant conditioning later developed by B.F. Skinner

Question 52

52. Describe the general features of French sensationalism

Answer 52

French sensationalism was characterized by an approach to understanding the mind that aimed to explain mental phenomena using principles similar to those employed in the study of the physical world. It emphasized the mechanical nature of the mind, the reduction of mental activity to basic elements, and the minimization of metaphysical speculation. French sensationalists, much like their British counterparts, rejected the rationalism of Descartes, advocating for the idea that all ideas stem from experience and that the laws of association account for most, if not all, mental processes

Question 53

53. Briefly describe the life and work of Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655)

Answer 53

Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655) was a French philosopher and mathematician who sought to challenge Descartes’s deductive and dualistic philosophy. He emphasized an observational and inductive scientific approach based on physical monism. Gassendi criticized Descartes’s mind-body dualism, arguing that the mind, if immaterial, cannot have knowledge of material things. He proposed that the mind and its activities could be explained as functions of the physical brain, advocating for a materialistic perspective

Question 54

54. Briefly describe the life and work of Julien de La Mettrie (1709–1751). Describe his views concerning man as a machine, the differences between humans and non-human animals, and the desirability of accepting materialism as a worldview

Answer 54

Julien de La Mettrie (1709–1751) was a French philosopher known for his work on materialism and his controversial ideas regarding the mind-body relationship. He emphasized the intimate connection between the mind and the body, rejecting Descartes’s dualism. La Mettrie famously asserted that “man is a machine,” advocating for a thoroughgoing materialism that denied the existence of an immaterial soul. He believed that humans and non-human animals were fundamentally similar, differing only in degree, not in type. La Mettrie promoted the acceptance of materialism as a worldview, suggesting that it would lead to a more compassionate and understanding society.

Question 55

55. Briefly describe the life and work of Étienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715–1780). Describe his idea of the imaginary sentient statue and explain its relevance to human mental abilities

Answer 55

Étienne Bonnot de Condillac (1714–1780) was a French philosopher born into an aristocratic family in Grenoble. He extended Locke’s empiricism into French philosophy and emphasized the role of sensation, memory, and pleasure and pain in shaping human mental abilities. His famous concept of the “sentient statue” illustrated how mental faculties could develop from simple sensory experiences. The statue, with only the sense of smell, could perceive, remember, feel, desire, compare, judge, and form abstract ideas, showcasing the progression of mental capacities from basic sensations

Question 56

56. Briefly describe the life and work of Claude Helvétius (1715–1771)

Answer 56

Claude Helvétius (1715–1771), a French philosopher, published the controversial work “Essays on the Mind” in 1758, which was condemned and burned by the Sorbonne. He followed the principles of British empiricism and emphasized the role of experience in shaping human behavior and intellect. Helvétius believed that control of experiences through education could shape moral behavior and even genius. He advocated for radical environmentalism and suggested that a perfect education could lead to perfect individuals, aligning with his hedonistic beliefs

Question 57

57. Briefly describe the life and work of Auguste Comte (1798–1857). Describe the following aspects of his work: (a) positivism, (b) the law of three stages, (c) religion and the sciences

Answer 57

Auguste Comte (1798–1857) was a French philosopher born in Montpellier. He is best known for founding the philosophy of positivism, which emphasized the role of empirical evidence in the formation of knowledge. Comte proposed the “law of three stages,” suggesting that societies and individuals evolve through a theological stage, a metaphysical stage, and finally a scientific or positivist stage. He also developed a secular “religion of humanity” that sought to replace traditional religion with a system based on scientific principles. Comte’s work aimed to use scientific methods to improve society and emphasized the practical utility of knowledge.

Question 58

58. Briefly describe the life and work of Ernst Mach (1838–1916), focusing especially on his view of positivism

Answer 58

Ernst Mach (1838–1916) was an Austrian physicist and philosopher known for his contributions to the philosophy of science and his advocacy of empiricism and positivism. Mach’s view of positivism was centered on the idea that scientific concepts should be defined in terms of the procedures used to measure them, rather than in terms of their metaphysical essence. He emphasized the importance of empirical evidence and sensory experiences in the development of scientific knowledge, rejecting the idea of direct experience of the physical world. Mach’s ideas were instrumental in the development of logical positivism, which had a significant impact on the field of psychology.

Question 59

59. Compare and contrast the positivism of Comte and Mach.

Answer 59

Comte and Mach shared a commitment to positivism, which emphasized the importance of empirical evidence and scientific observation in the formation of knowledge. However, they differed in their focus and approach. Comte was primarily concerned with the application of positivism to social and moral issues, developing a social philosophy that aimed to improve society through the application of scientific principles. In contrast, Mach focused on the philosophy of science and the methods of scientific inquiry, emphasizing the role of sensory experiences and measurements in the development of scientific knowledge. While Comte proposed a system of thought that integrated positivism with a secular “religion of humanity,” Mach’s approach was more focused on the objective study of sensory experiences and the rejection of metaphysical speculation.