Chapter 12 Study Questions

Question 1

Briefly describe the life and work of Ivan M. Sechenov (1829–1905)

Answer 1

Ivan M. Sechenov (1829–1905) was a prominent Russian physiologist and neuroscientist, known as the founder of Russian objective psychology. Sechenov’s early education was in military engineering, but he later shifted his focus to medicine at the University of Moscow, where he obtained his MD. He was heavily influenced by the evolutionary ideas of Spencer and Darwin, as well as the work of La Mettrie and the Berlin physiologists. Sechenov’s academic career started at the Military Medical Academy in St. Petersburg and concluded at the University of Moscow. His contributions to psychology and physiology were profound and pivotal

Question 2

Describe Sechenov’s views regarding the concept of inhibition

Answer 2

One of Sechenov’s key contributions was the concept of inhibition, which he introduced in his work “Reflexes of the Brain” (1863/1965). Sechenov observed inhibitory mechanisms in the brain, leading him to conclude that psychology could be comprehended through physiological processes. He built upon the observations of Weber, who discovered that stimulating a frog’s vagus nerve could slow down its heart rate, indicating a link between increased activity in one part of the neuromuscular system and decreased activity in another.

Sechenov’s work revealed that spinal reflexes were slower in animals with intact cerebral cortices compared to those with ablated cortices, suggesting that one function of the cortex might be to inhibit reflexive behavior. He conducted experiments on frogs, demonstrating that he could inhibit the reflexive withdrawal of a leg from an acid solution by applying salt crystals to specific areas of the brain. Removal of the salt resulted in the return of the reflex at full force. Sechenov’s concept of inhibition explained the discrepancy between the intensity of a stimulus and the intensity of the response it evokes, postulating that responses to stimuli can be partially or completely inhibited

Question 3

Describe Sechenov’s relationship between physiology and psychology

Answer 3

Sechenov emphasized that both overt behavior and mental processes are reflexive, triggered by external stimulation filtered through physiological processes in the brain. He postulated that human development involves the gradual establishment of inhibitory control over reflexive behavior, enabling contemplative action and the endurance of aversive experiences. For Sechenov, the study of psychology should be approached through the objective methods of physiology, as he believed that the traditional introspective analysis led to fictional interpretations of psychological phenomena. He advocated for psychology to be rooted in scientifically verifiable facts, eliminating subjective and arbitrary interpretations

Question 4

Briefly describe the life and work of Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov (1849–1936)

Answer 4

Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov (1849–1936) was a renowned Russian physiologist whose pioneering work on the digestive process and the conditioned reflex fundamentally shaped the fields of psychology and physiology. Alongside his scientific contributions, his distinct personality and strong work ethic contributed to his enduring legacy

Question 5

Describe Pavlov’s work in studying the digestive process

Answer 5

Pavlov’s work in studying the digestive process: Pavlov’s early research focused on the digestive system. He developed a surgical procedure known as a gastric fistula, allowing him to observe the digestive processes in dogs without traumatizing the animals. This method enabled him to understand how the amount of secretion through the fistula varied in response to different types of stimulation to the digestive system. His meticulous research on the digestive process earned him the Nobel Prize in Physiology in 1904

Question 6

Describe Pavlov’s discovery of the conditioned reflex

Answer 6

Pavlov’s discovery of the conditioned reflex: While studying the digestive process, Pavlov noticed that the dogs began to associate the presence of an experimenter or the sound of footsteps with the presentation of food powder. He termed these responses as conditioned reflexes, demonstrating that organisms could learn to associate neutral stimuli with biologically significant events. His concept of conditioned reflexes laid the foundation for the understanding of learned behaviors and responses in psychology

Question 7

Describe Pavlov’s personality

Answer 7

Pavlov was known for his dedication to his laboratory work, showing great attention to detail and perfectionism. Despite his frugal lifestyle, he prioritized well-equipped laboratories and well-fed experimental animals. Outside the laboratory, he exhibited a sentimental and absent-minded nature, often engaging in eccentric behaviors that amused his friends and family

Question 8

Describe Pavlov’s process of formation of a conditioned reflex (using the technical terms)

Answer 8

Pavlov’s concept of the conditioned reflex explains how a previously neutral stimulus, when consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits a conditioned response. Through the principles of contiguity and frequency, the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus, leading to the development of the conditioned response

Question 9

Describe Pavlov’s processes of excitation and inhibition

Answer 9

According to Pavlov, all central nervous system activity can be categorized as either excitation or inhibition. Unconditioned and conditioned stimuli will elicit unconditioned and conditioned reflexes, respectively, if not modified by inhibition. These processes of excitation and inhibition influence an organism’s behavior and determine its responses to the environment at any given moment

Question 10

Describe Pavlov’s processes of extinction, spontaneous recovery, and disinhibition

Answer 10

Extinction occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus, gradually reducing the conditioned response. Spontaneous recovery happens when, after extinction, the conditioned stimulus again elicits a conditioned response. Disinhibition occurs when a strong, irrelevant stimulus is presented after extinction, causing the return of the conditioned response by displacing the inhibitory process

Question 11

Describe Pavlov’s experimental neurosis

Answer 11

Pavlov demonstrated that conflicting tendencies could lead to experimental neurosis, resulting in abnormal behavior in animals. The conflicting tendencies, arising from the presentation of similar but distinct stimuli, could cause animals to respond in various ways, such as heightened irritability or depression

Question 12

Describe Pavlov’s first-and second-signal systems

Answer 12

Pavlov proposed the first-signal system, which involves biologically neutral stimuli that signal biologically significant events. He also introduced the second-signal system, where stimuli symbolize reality, such as language representing environmental and bodily experiences. These systems serve as crucial mechanisms for organisms to adapt to impending events and guide behavior

Question 13

Describe Pavlov’s views of psychology.

Answer 13

Pavlov held a critical view of psychology, particularly introspective psychology. He aimed to establish a physiological basis for psychological processes, emphasizing the objective study of behavior and the avoidance of subjective interpretations. Pavlov believed that his work on conditioned reflexes provided a scientific foundation for understanding associative psychology and marked a significant step in putting psychology on an objective footing

Question 14

Briefly describe the life and work of Vladimir M. Bechterev (1857–1927)

Answer 14

Vladimir M. Bechterev was a prominent Russian neurologist and psychologist who lived from 1857 to 1927. He began his academic journey at the Military Medical Academy in St. Petersburg, where he graduated in 1878 and later earned his doctorate in 1881. Bechterev further expanded his education by working with influential figures in the field, including Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig, Du Bois-Reymond in Berlin, and Charcot in Paris. In 1885, he established the first Russian experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Kazan, where he initiated his pioneering work on reflexology and the objective study of human behavior

Question 15

Describe Bechterev’s concept of reflexology

Answer 15

Bechterev’s concept of reflexology focused on understanding the relationship between environmental stimuli and overt behavior. He emphasized the significance of studying behavior as a reflection of physical, biological, and social conditions, advocating for an objective approach to psychology. His method involved examining behavioral manifestations such as facial expressions, gestures, and speech in response to various stimuli. Bechterev’s work paved the way for a more behavior-oriented perspective in psychology, emphasizing the importance of external influences on human behavior and the need to bypass subjective analyses

Question 16

Describe Bechterev’s conflict with Pavlov

Answer 16

Bechterev’s conflicts with Ivan Pavlov were notable during their time. While both studied conditioned reflexes, Bechterev referred to them as association reflexes, and he criticized Pavlov’s research methodology, particularly his “saliva method.” Bechterev argued that studying motor reflexes was more practical and reliable than studying secretion, as it provided a clearer understanding of the correlations between external stimuli and behavioral responses. This rivalry between Bechterev and Pavlov influenced the trajectory of their research and subsequent recognition, with Pavlov ultimately gaining more prominence in the field of psychology.

Question 17

Describe the work of other Russian contributors during this time, including Alexander Luria (1902–1977) and Lev Vygotsky

Answer 17

During the same period, other Russian contributors, including Alexander Luria (1902–1977) and Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934), made significant contributions to the field of psychology. Luria, influenced by the physiologically-near objective psychology of the time, focused on studying brain damage and cortical functions, particularly through the development of the Luria-Nebraska assessment. His work emphasized the relationship between neurological processes and human behavior, particularly in the context of clinical neuropsychology

Lev Vygotsky, influenced by various psychological schools of thought, including objective psychology, behaviorism, and the Gestalt approach, delved into the study of cognitive development and the relationship between thought and language. Vygotsky proposed that the evolution of this relationship occurred during development, highlighting the interdependence of language and thought rather than viewing them as separate entities. His contributions to the understanding of cognitive development and the cognitive revolution have solidified his position as a pioneer in the field of psychology

Question 18

Describe the life and work of John B. Watson (1878–1958)

Answer 18

John B. Watson (1878–1958) was a prominent figure in the field of psychology, known for his contributions to behaviorism and his controversial personal life.

Question 19

Describe Watson’s undergraduate experiences

Answer 19

John B. Watson began his academic journey with a strong interest in philosophy, particularly the work of Herbert Spencer and William James. He later shifted his focus to psychology and graduated with a bachelor’s degree from Furman University in 1899. His undergraduate experiences laid the foundation for his later work in psychology, particularly his early interest in the mind-body relationship and behavior

Question 20

Describe Watson’s graduate school years at the University of Chicago

Answer 20

Watson continued his education at the University of Chicago, where he was influenced by the functionalist approach of John Dewey and James Rowland Angell. He was involved in research on animal behavior and developed an interest in the study of reflexes and their relation to complex behaviors. This period was crucial in shaping his future views on behaviorism and experimental psychology

Question 21

Describe Watson’s professorship at Johns Hopkins University

Answer 21

Watson’s career reached its peak during his tenure at Johns Hopkins University, where he became one of the leading proponents of behaviorism. He advocated for a shift in focus from the study of consciousness to observable behavior, emphasizing the importance of empirical research and the rejection of introspection as a valid method of psychological inquiry. Watson’s work at Johns Hopkins was instrumental in the development of behaviorism as a major school of thought in psychology

Question 22

Describe Watson’s scandalous divorce

Answer 22

Watson’s personal life was marred by scandal when he divorced his wife and later married his research assistant, Rosalie Rayner. This highly publicized event tarnished his reputation and caused him to lose his position at Johns Hopkins University. The scandal had a significant impact on Watson’s career and personal life, leading to his eventual departure from academia and his subsequent work in advertising

Question 23

Describe Watson’s work in advertising

Answer 23

Following his dismissal from academia, Watson transitioned into the field of advertising, where he applied his knowledge of psychology to marketing and consumer behavior. His work in advertising allowed him to further develop his understanding of human behavior and persuasion, which he later incorporated into his theories of behaviorism

Question 24

Describe Watson’s objective psychology

Answer 24

Watson’s approach to psychology emphasized the importance of objectivity and empirical observation. He advocated for the study of behavior as a way to understand human and animal psychology, rejecting the use of subjective introspection as a valid method of psychological inquiry. His emphasis on objectivity laid the groundwork for the development of behaviorism as a scientific and empirical discipline

Question 25

Describe Watson’s view of the goals of psychology

Answer 25

According to Watson, the primary goal of psychology was to predict and control behavior. He believed that through the study of observable behavior and environmental factors, psychologists could understand and manipulate human behavior. Watson’s pragmatic approach to psychology focused on practical applications and the development of behavioral interventions based on empirical research

Question 26

Describe Watson’s four types of behaviour and four methods for studying behaviour

Answer 26

Watson identified four types of behavior—emotional, glandular, skeletal, and visceral—and proposed four methods for studying behavior: (1) observation, (2) experimentation, (3) verbal reports, and (4) physiological measures. He believed that these methods were essential for understanding the underlying mechanisms of behavior and for developing a comprehensive understanding of human and animal psychology

Question 27

Describe Watson’s views concerning language and thinking

Answer 27

Watson considered language and thinking to be forms of behavior, emphasizing that both were overt behaviors that could be studied objectively. He proposed that thinking was a form of subvocal speech and that it could be understood through the study of overt speech and observable behavior. Watson’s view on language and thinking as behaviors contributed to the development of his behaviorist principles and his rejection of the significance of consciousness in psychological inquiry

Question 28

Describe Watson’s conception of the role of instincts and learning in behaviour

Answer 28

Watson’s stance on instincts evolved over the course of his career, initially acknowledging their significance in his early work and later rejecting their importance in human behavior. He argued that learned habits and environmental experiences were the primary determinants of human behavior, emphasizing the role of environmental factors over innate instincts. Watson’s radical environmentalism underscored the importance of environmental influences in shaping personality and behavior, challenging prevailing views on the role of instincts in human psychology

Question 29

Describe the work of John B. Watson with respect to his experiments (with Mary Cover Jones) with little Albert and Peter

Answer 29

John B. Watson’s most notable experiments involved the classical conditioning of fear in young children. With Little Albert, he and Rosalie Rayner demonstrated how emotions could be displaced to stimuli other than those that initially elicited them. By pairing a white rat with a loud, unexpected noise, they induced fear in Albert, which later generalized to other furry objects. Later, with Mary Cover Jones, Watson employed counterconditioning techniques to help a child named Peter overcome his fear of white rats, rabbits, fur coats, frogs, fish, and mechanical toys. Through a process of gradual exposure and positive reinforcement, Peter’s fears were gradually eliminated, marking one of the earliest instances of behavior therapy

Question 30

Describe the work of John B. Watson with respect to his views on child rearing

Answer 30

Watson emphasized a behaviorist approach to child rearing in his book “Psychological Care of the Infant and Child.” He advocated treating children as small adults, discouraging excessive displays of affection such as hugging and kissing. His suggestion was to maintain an objective and non-sentimental approach to parenting, encouraging positive reinforcement for children’s achievements rather than emotional nurturing

Question 31

Describe the work of John B. Watson with respect to his views on sex education

Answer 31

Watson advocated for a frank and objective approach to sex education, reflecting his belief that the secrecy surrounding sex should be eliminated. His views aligned with those of Freud, as Watson appreciated the role Freud played in breaking down societal taboos about sexuality

Question 32

Describe the work of John B. Watson with respect to his view of the learning process

Answer 32

Watson’s view of the learning process was rooted in behaviorism. He rejected the concept of mentalistic explanations and emphasized the importance of contiguity and frequency in learning. Watson believed that learning resulted from the mechanical arrangement of stimuli and responses, with no need for the concept of reinforcement as described by Thorndike

Question 33

Describe the work of John B. Watson with respect to his position regarding the mind-body problem

Answer 33

Initially accepting consciousness as an epiphenomenon, Watson later shifted to a physical monist position. He vehemently rejected the concept of consciousness as unobservable and unscientific, aligning his view with a complete disregard for mental events in the study of psychology

Question 34

Summarize Watson’s influence on the development of psychology

Answer 34

Watson’s influence on the development of psychology was profound. He revolutionized the field by shifting the focus from the study of consciousness to the prediction and control of behavior. Watson’s work solidified behaviorism as a dominant approach in psychology, emphasizing observable behavior and rejecting the significance of internal mental events. His legacy remains embedded in contemporary behaviorist and methodological behaviorist approaches to psychological research

Question 35

Briefly describe the life and work of William McDougall (1871–1938)

Answer 35

William McDougall was a prominent psychologist known for his significant contributions to the field of psychology. Throughout his life, McDougall advocated for a psychology that acknowledged the significance of mental events and the purposive nature of behavior. He contributed to the redefinition of psychology as the science of behavior, laying the groundwork for the development of various psychological concepts and theories

Question 36

Describe McDougall’s definition of psychology

Answer 36

McDougall redefined psychology as the science of behavior. He emphasized the importance of studying behavior in all its aspects and modes of functioning. Rejecting the narrow conception of psychology as the science of consciousness, McDougall advocated for the objective study of behavior in both humans and nonhuman animals

Question 37

Describe McDougall’s concept of purposive behaviour

Answer 37

McDougall’s study of purposive behavior focused on spontaneous actions that were not solely elicited by known stimuli. Purposive behavior persisted for a relatively long time, varying as needed to achieve its goal. Unlike reflexive behavior, which was automatic and stereotyped, purposive behavior involved goal-directed actions stimulated by instinctual motives

Question 38

Describe McDougall’s views regarding instincts

Answer 38

McDougall believed that behavior was not primarily stimulated by environmental events but by instinctual energy. He defined instincts as inherited or innate psycho-physical dispositions that directed individuals to perceive specific objects, experience corresponding emotions, and act in particular ways. McDougall postulated that all organisms, including humans, were born with a set of instincts that motivated their actions

Question 39

Describe McDougall’s debate with Watson over behaviourism.

Answer 39

McDougall engaged in a significant debate with John B. Watson, primarily concerning the role of instincts and the learning process in behavior. While McDougall emphasized the importance of instincts as the motivators of all behavior, Watson rejected the existence of instincts on the human level, advocating for a behaviorist perspective that focused solely on observable behavior. Their debate highlighted fundamental differences in their approaches to psychology and the understanding of behavior. Mcdougall was declared the winner in a narrow margin