Chapter 13 Study Questions

Question 1

Define logical positivism and describe its historical origins, including the positions of Comte, Mach, and the Vienna Circle

Answer 1

Logical positivism was a philosophical movement that emerged in the early 20th century. It aimed to reconcile empiricism with a sophisticated understanding of scientific theory.
Auguste Comte, the founder of positivism, emphasized the importance of empirical observation and the scientific method. He believed that knowledge should be based on empirical evidence and that metaphysical speculation should be avoided.

Ernst Mach, building on Comte’s ideas, argued that all we can be certain of is our sensations. He asserted that sensations are the ultimate subject matter for any science and that understanding the correlations between sensations enables better adaptation to the environment.

The Vienna Circle, a group of philosophers and scientists in Vienna in the 1920s, further developed logical positivism. They combined the earlier positivist ideas of Comte and Mach with the rigorous methods of formal logic.

Question 2

What are observational terms and theoretical terms?

Answer 2

Observational terms are those that refer to directly observable events or objects. These terms are grounded in empirical evidence and can be measured or observed objectively. Examples include terms like “force,” “energy,” or “mass.” Theoretical terms, on the other hand, are concepts that attempt to explain what is observed. These terms often go beyond direct observation and refer to entities or processes that cannot be directly perceived. Examples include theoretical concepts like “gravity,” “magnetism,” or “atom.”

Question 3

Define an operational definition and operationism

Answer 3

An operational definition is a clear, precise, and detailed definition of a variable that allows it to be measured and observed objectively. It defines a concept in terms of the specific procedures or operations used to measure or manipulate it. This approach makes theoretical terms concrete and testable, anchoring them in observable phenomena. Operationism, in the context of logical positivism, refers to the insistence that all scientific concepts should be defined in terms of the operations or procedures used to measure them. By operationalizing theoretical terms, they become linked to observable phenomena, thereby reducing ambiguity and metaphysical speculation.

Question 4

Contrast positivism with logical positivism

Answer 4

Positivism, as introduced by Auguste Comte, emphasized empirical observation and the scientific method. It discouraged metaphysical speculation and focused on concrete, observable phenomena. Logical positivism, while building on these ideas, allowed for the incorporation of theoretical terms in science, provided they could be logically tied to empirical observations. It accepted the use of theory in science without sacrificing objectivity, as long as such theories were rooted in empirical verification.

Question 5

Define neobehaviourism and describe its historical origins

Answer 5

Neobehaviorism was a psychological approach that emerged from the combination of behaviorism and logical positivism. It emphasized the importance of empirical observation and the operational definition of theoretical terms. Neobehaviorists insisted on the use of nonhuman animals in research, believing that their behavior could be generalized to humans. They prioritized the learning process as the primary mechanism through which organisms adapt to their environment.

The historical origins of neobehaviorism lie in the period from approximately 1930 to 1950, during which logical positivism had a significant influence on the field of psychology. Despite the dominance of neobehaviorism during this period, some psychologists were drawn to psychoanalysis and Gestalt psychology, which stood in contrast to the principles of logical positivism and neobehaviorism.

Question 6

Briefly describe the life and work of Edwin Ray Guthrie (1886–1959)

Answer 6

Edwin Ray Guthrie (1886–1959) was an influential American psychologist known for his work in the field of learning theory. His life was marked by an academic inclination from an early age. After obtaining his MA in philosophy from the University of Nebraska and later a PhD from the University of Pennsylvania, he taught at various educational institutions before finally settling at the University of Washington, where he made significant contributions to the field of psychology

Question 7

Describe Guthrie’s single law of learning

Answer 7

Guthrie’s single law of learning, the law of contiguity, posited that a combination of stimuli that accompanied a movement would tend to be followed by that same movement when the situation recurred. This principle emphasized the significance of associations between stimuli and responses, disregarding the notions of confirmatory waves or reinforcement

Question 8

Describe Guthrie’s concept of one-trial learning

Answer 8

Guthrie departed from traditional views on learning by introducing the idea of one-trial learning. Unlike his predecessors who believed in the law of frequency, Guthrie postulated that a stimulus pattern gains its full associative strength upon its first pairing with a response. This concept challenged the notion that repeated exposure was necessary for learning to occur

Question 9

Describe Guthrie’s distinctions between movements, acts, and skills, and his explanation of why practice improves performance

Answer 9

Guthrie made distinctions between movements, acts, and skills. He described movements as specific responses to specific stimulus configurations, while acts were responses to varying stimulus configurations. Skills were then defined as a combination of multiple acts. According to Guthrie, practice improves performance because learning a movement occurs in a single trial, but mastering an act or a skill necessitates the learning of numerous stimulus-response associations

Question 10

Describe Guthrie’s concept of the nature of reinforcement

Answer 10

Guthrie rejected the traditional view of reinforcement put forth by Thorndike, arguing that reinforcement merely changes the stimulating conditions, preserving the association that preceded it. According to his recency principle, the last response made in a situation will tend to be repeated in similar situations

Question 11

Describe Guthrie’s view of the forgetting process

Answer 11

Guthrie viewed forgetting as an active process, wherein old stimulus-response associations are displaced by new ones. He emphasized that forgetting occurs only if an existing association is interfered with, requiring active unlearning rather than passive fading over time

Question 12

Describe Guthrie’s notion of habit and how to break habits

Answer 12

Guthrie defined habits as acts associated with a multitude of stimuli. To break undesirable habits, he recommended replacing the undesirable act with a different, desirable act in the presence of the same stimuli. By doing so, the new act would become associated with the stimuli, eventually superseding the old habit

Question 13

Describe Guthrie’s concept of punishment

Answer 13

Guthrie believed that the effectiveness of punishment lay in its ability to elicit behavior incompatible with the undesirable behavior in the presence of specific stimuli. If punishment could provoke a response incongruent with the undesirable behavior in specific circumstances, it would likely be effective

Question 14

Describe Guthrie’s attempts of Voeks and Estes to formalize Guthrie’s theory

Answer 14

Virginia W. Voeks and William Kaye Estes attempted to formalize Guthrie’s theory. Voeks, a student of Guthrie, developed a more structured version of Guthrie’s ideas, creating postulates, definitions, and theorems. Meanwhile, Estes built on Guthrie’s one-trial learning concept, developing stimulus sampling theory, which provided a more comprehensive understanding of the complexity inherent in Guthrie’s seemingly simple model. Though Estes later modified his theory to align with cognitive psychology, the core concept of Guthrie’s law of contiguity remained central to his revised model

Question 15

Briefly describe the life and work of Clark Leonard Hull (1884–1952)

Answer 15

Clark Leonard Hull, born in 1884 near Akron, New York, overcame several physical challenges and financial constraints to become one of the most influential psychologists of the 20th century. Initially aspiring to become a Unitarian minister, he eventually found his passion in psychology, driven by a desire to work with apparatus and to engage in theoretical work. His strong interest in developing machines that could simulate human thinking aligned with his fascination with Pavlov’s work on conditioned responses, and he sought to apply this knowledge to the study of learning processes in both humans and animals.

Question 16

Describe Hulls hypothetico-deductive theory

Answer 16

Hull’s most significant contribution to the field was his development of the hypothetico-deductive theory of learning. This theory aimed to integrate physiological processes and innate drives into the framework of stimulus-response learning While his perspective was mechanistic and materialistic, Hull’s ideas were instrumental in stimulating an era of intense theoretical debate, leading to significant advancements in psychological research methodology and the development of behaviorist principles

Question 17

Describe Hulls views on reinforcement

Answer 17

Hull postulated that reinforcement was directly related to the reduction of biological drives, and he operationalized habit strength as the number of reinforced pairings between an environmental stimulus and a response. Hull’s theory emphasized the role of various intervening variables that interacted to cause observable behavior, and he utilized operational definitions to elucidate the complex relationship between these variables

Question 18

Summarize Hulls influence on the development of psychology

Answer 18

Despite the eventual decline of Hull’s theory in the face of simpler and more pragmatic behavioral approaches, his contributions to the field remain influential. His legacy is evident in the works of his notable students and collaborators, who extended and modified his theories to address various aspects of personality, psychopathology, and social phenomena. Hull’s dedication to developing a comprehensive theoretical framework and his influence on subsequent generations of psychologists solidify his place among the pioneers of modern behavioral psychology

Question 19

Describe the life and work of Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904–1990)

Answer 19

Burrhus Frederic Skinner, born in 1904 in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, was a renowned American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher who significantly shaped the field of psychology. His contributions were deeply influenced by the intellectual atmosphere of his time, including the rise of positivism and behaviorism.

Question 20

Describe Skinner’s version of positivism

Answer 20

Skinner was deeply influenced by the ideas of logical positivism, which emphasized the importance of empirical evidence and the rejection of metaphysical concepts. He adopted a positivistic approach, emphasizing the significance of observable facts and functional relationships in his study of behavior. He was influenced by the works of Bacon and Mach, advocating for a focus on the analysis of empirical relationships rather than theoretical explanations.

Question 21

Describe Skinner’s theories on the functional analysis of behaviour

Answer 21

Skinner’s approach to behavior was characterized by functional analysis, where he emphasized the study of the functional relationships between the environment and behavior. He believed that mental events were not the focus of study and that behavior could be understood by analyzing the environmental circumstances that control it. He stressed the importance of examining how external stimuli and consequences influence behavior.

Question 22

Describe Skinner’s theories on operant behaviour

Answer 22

Skinner’s concept of operant behavior highlighted how behavior is influenced by its consequences. Unlike respondent behavior that is elicited by known stimuli, operant behavior is emitted by the organism and is influenced by its consequences. Skinner’s work focused on the understanding and manipulation of operant behavior through the use of reinforcement contingencies and schedules.

Question 23

Describe Skinner’s theories on the nature of reinforcement

Answer 23

Skinner’s perspective on reinforcement rejected the idea of drive reduction or any complex internal mechanisms. He defined reinforcement as any environmental event that, when made contingent on a response, increases the likelihood of that response recurring. He emphasized that reinforcement should be understood solely through its effects on behavior and that the concept of reinforcement should be devoid of additional theoretical implications.

Question 24

Describe Skinner’s theories on the role of the environment

Answer 24

Skinner emphasized the critical role of the environment in shaping behavior. He viewed the environment as a determinant of behavior, selecting which behaviors are reinforced and consequently influencing their recurrence. He applied Darwinian principles, suggesting that behaviors surviving in a particular environment become part of the organism’s behavioral repertoire.

Question 25

Describe Skinner’s theories on the positive control of behaviour

Answer 25

Skinner advocated for the positive modification of behavior through the manipulation of reinforcement contingencies. He criticized the use of punishment as an ineffective means of behavior modification and instead recommended the use of positive reinforcement to encourage desirable behavior. He highlighted the drawbacks of punishment and its negative by-products, promoting the use of positive reinforcement to strengthen adaptive behavior.

Question 26

Describe Skinner’s position with respect to theories

Answer 26

Skinner rejected abstract theorizing, preferring a descriptive approach based on the functional analysis of behavior. He emphasized the value of research that directly examines empirical relationships and functional connections, avoiding unnecessary theoretical constructs. Skinner’s non-theoretical approach focused on practical experimentation and the exploration of valuable

Question 27

Describe the applications of Skinnerian principles

Answer 27

Skinner’s principles found application in various fields, including education, behavioral therapy, and practical problem-solving. His work influenced the development of programmed learning techniques and behavior modification programs. Skinnerian principles were used to address a wide range of behavioral issues, from educational practices and mental health treatments to social interventions and practical training programs.

Question 28

Briefly describe the life and work of Edward Chace Tolman (1886–1959)

Answer 28

Edward Chace Tolman, born in 1886, was an American psychologist known for his significant contributions to the field of psychology. His life and work were marked by his emphasis on cognitive processes and purposive behavior

Question 29

Describe Tolman’s purposive behaviourism

Answer 29

Tolman’s approach to behaviorism, known as purposive behaviorism, focused on the study of purposeful and goal-directed behaviors. He argued that behavior should be studied in terms of its purpose, rather than isolated stimuli and responses. He integrated mentalistic concepts such as purpose and cognition into his behaviorist framework while emphasizing that these concepts should be operationally defined, aligning with the principles of behaviorism

Question 30

Describe Tolman’s use of rats in his research

Answer 30

Tolman extensively used rats as experimental subjects in his research. He chose rats due to their suitability as experimental subjects, allowing for controlled observations without the complexities associated with human subjects. Tolman’s fondness for rats led him to conduct several landmark studies on learning and behavior, primarily through maze experiments and other controlled settings

Question 31

Describe Tolman’s use of intervening variables

Answer 31

Tolman introduced the concept of intervening variables to explain the relationship between environmental events and behavior. He used theoretical constructs such as purpose and cognition as intervening variables, which could be employed to describe, predict, and explain behavior. Tolman insisted on operational definitions of these variables, linking them to observable events to maintain the scientific rigor of his approach

Question 32

Describe Tolman’s use of hypotheses, expectancies, beliefs, and cognitive maps

Answer 32

Tolman proposed that animals form hypotheses, expectancies, and beliefs based on their experiences, leading to the development of cognitive maps. These cognitive maps represent an understanding of the spatial layout and relationships in the environment. He suggested that animals navigate their surroundings based on these cognitive maps, enabling purposeful behavior and informed decision-making

Question 33

Describe Tolman’s view of reinforcement

Answer 33

Unlike traditional behaviorists, Tolman did not adhere to the notion that learning is solely a result of reinforcement. He emphasized the importance of confirmation rather than reinforcement in the learning process. Tolman believed that learning occurs constantly, with or without reinforcement, and that motivational states influence performance but not learning

Question 34

Describe Tolman’s learning-performance distinction

Answer 34

Tolman distinguished between learning and performance, emphasizing that learning can remain latent until an organism has a reason to use it. He conducted experiments demonstrating that animals could learn without immediate reinforcement and that their learning could become apparent when provided with an incentive to perform

Question 35

Describe Tolman’s concept of latent learning

Answer 35

Tolman’s concept of latent learning refers to the phenomenon wherein learning remains hidden until it is demonstrated through purposeful behavior. His experiments with rats in maze settings highlighted the distinction between learning and performance, emphasizing the role of cognitive processes in navigating the environment

Question 36

Summarize Tolman’s influence on psychology.

Answer 36

Tolman helped preserve and shape the tradition of cognitive psychology, particularly during the dominance of classical behaviorism. By incorporating mentalistic concepts into his behaviorist framework, he demonstrated the compatibility of cognitive concepts within a sophisticated behaviorist perspective. Tolman’s emphasis on cognitive processes and his research on intervening variables laid the groundwork for modern cognitive psychology. His work continues to influence the understanding of learning, cognition, and behavior in contemporary psychological research

Question 37

Describe the contemporary state of behaviourism

Answer 37

Behaviorism, which was once the dominant school of thought in American psychology, has undergone significant changes and adaptations in contemporary times. While its prominence has diminished, it has left a lasting impact on the field of psychology. Several key developments have shaped the contemporary state of behaviorism.

1. Influence of Skinnerian Behaviorism: B.F. Skinner’s ideas continue to hold influence, with the formation of Division 25, the division of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior within the American Psychological Association (APA). The continued presence of this division and related journals demonstrates the enduring legacy of Skinner’s work.
2. Criticisms and Limitations: One of the major criticisms of behaviorism is its strict denial of internal mental processes, which has become a limitation in the face of more recent research indicating the importance of cognitive processes in understanding behavior. Additionally, the insistence on strict operational definitions has been found to be restrictive, leading to a reevaluation of the role of theory construction and the limitations of logical positivism.
3. Evolution of Cognitive Psychology: The rise of cognitive psychology has shifted the focus away from strict behaviorism, as cognitive psychology acknowledges the role of mental processes in behavior. Contemporary psychology is largely shaped by cognitive approaches, recognizing that behavior can be understood through the study of internal cognitive processes, which includes memory, attention, problem-solving, and decision-making.
4. Integration of Behaviorism and Cognitive Psychology: While cognitive psychology is currently the dominant approach, it emphasizes the importance of behavior as an index of internal cognitive processes. This integration suggests that behaviorism, to some extent, continues to influence contemporary psychological research, albeit in a modified form.