Chapter 3 Study Questions Flashcards
- What were the Dark Ages and when did they begin?
The Dark Ages is a term used to describe the period in Europe typically considered to have begun around the 5th century and lasted until the 15th century, following the decline of the Roman Empire. It is characterized by a lack of historical documentation, societal instability, and a general decline in cultural and economic prosperity.
- How did the Crusades lead to the rediscovery of Aristotle’s work?
During the Crusades, Western European scholars had more direct contact with the Islamic world, where Aristotle’s works had been preserved and studied. This exposure to Islamic philosophy and science prompted a renewed interest in the works of ancient Greek thinkers, including Aristotle, and led to their reintroduction into Western Europe.
- Describe the expansion of Islam during the Dark Ages.
After the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632, the Islamic empire rapidly expanded, conquering significant territories in the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Europe. Within a century of Muhammad’s death, the Islamic empire encompassed regions larger than the Roman Empire at its peak. The Islamic world made significant advancements in various fields such as medicine, science, and mathematics, building upon the ancient wisdom of Greece and Rome.
- Describe the philosophies and contributions of Avicenna (980–1037)
Avicenna, also known as Ibn Sina, was a prominent Persian polymath who made significant contributions to various fields, including medicine, philosophy, and psychology. He developed a complex hierarchy of internal senses and emphasized the theological qualities of the active intellect.
- Describe the philosophies and contributions of Averroes (1126–1198)
Averroes, or Ibn Rushd, was a Spanish philosopher who focused on commenting and interpreting Aristotle’s works. His views on the survival of the active intellect after death and his scientific contributions were noteworthy. His interpretations of Aristotle were controversial and challenged by later Christian philosophers.
- Describe the philosophies and contributions of Maimonides (1135–1204)
Maimonides, or Moses ben Maimon, was a Jewish philosopher and physician from Spain. He made significant efforts to reconcile Judaism with Aristotelian philosophy, attempting to bridge the gap between religious teachings and rational thought. His works, including “The Guide for the Perplexed,” aimed to demonstrate the compatibility of Judaism with contemporary philosophical ideas.
- Who invented the ontological argument for the existence of God? Describe this argument.
The ontological argument for the existence of God was formulated by St. Anselm (ca. 1033–1109), an Augustinian theologian. The argument is a philosophical attempt to demonstrate the existence of God based on the concept of a perfect being. St. Anselm’s argument can be summarized as follows:
God is defined as “that than which nothing greater can be conceived.”
It is greater to exist both in the mind and in reality than to exist only in the mind.
If God only exists in the mind, then a greater being can be conceived—one that exists in reality.
Therefore, God must exist not only in the mind but also in reality, because the concept of God implies existence.
- Describe the reconciliation of the use of reason and Christian faith as represented in the beliefs of St. Anselm (ca. 1033–1109)
St. Anselm’s ontological argument highlights the idea that the concept of God as the greatest possible being implies that God must necessarily exist in reality to be considered the greatest.
St. Anselm emphasized the importance of reason as a supplement to Christian faith, suggesting that reason could be employed to comprehend and support religious beliefs. He acknowledged that his heart believed and loved God’s truth, and he sought to understand it to a certain degree through reason.
- What is Scholasticism?
Scholasticism refers to the medieval movement that sought to synthesize Christian theology with the philosophical works of figures like Aristotle. It represents a period of intellectual activity characterized by the application of reason to faith and the reconciliation of faith with reason. The engagement with the works of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers during this time significantly impacted the course of Western thought.
- Briefly describe the life, work, and philosophy of Peter Abelard (1079–1142)
Peter Abelard, a significant figure of the Scholastic period, contributed to the development of the movement through his use of the dialectical method. Abelard’s “Sic et Non” exemplified his approach, presenting theological questions and the conflicting answers provided by different authorities. His aim was not to challenge the Church’s teachings but rather to resolve inconsistencies within Christian doctrine through logical analysis.
Abelard’s philosophy was rooted in conceptualism, a perspective that denied the independent existence of universals and emphasized the role of the mind in creating conceptual categories.
Abelard’s emphasis on the importance of logical inquiry and the use of reason within the context of faith marked a significant development within the Scholastic tradition.
- Describe the philosophies of St. Albertus Magnus (ca. 1193–1280)
St. Albertus Magnus (ca. 1200–1280) was a significant figure in the Scholastic period, known for his comprehensive review of both Aristotle’s works and the interpretations of them by Islamic and Jewish scholars. He used rational powers to showcase the compatibility of Aristotle’s teachings with salvation. Albertus Magnus emphasized the importance of reason in understanding and interpreting the natural world, striving to reconcile the teachings of Aristotle with Christian theology.
- Describe the philosophies of St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274)
St. Thomas Aquinas (ca. 1225–1274), often referred to as the “dumb ox” by his peers, made notable contributions to the synthesis of Aristotelian philosophy and Christian tradition. He was known for his prodigious intellect, obtaining a doctorate in theology at the University of Paris before the usual age. Aquinas was closely associated with St. Albertus Magnus and shared a similar goal of reconciling reason and faith. He assimilated Aristotle’s works into church doctrine, emphasizing the compatibility of reason and faith in understanding God’s glory. Aquinas’s work eventually divided reason and faith, leading to the possibility of studying them separately.
- Describe the philosophy of William of Occam (ca. 1290–1350)
A British-born Franciscan monk, he believed that explanations of things should be kept simple. He aligned with the nominalists, rejecting the independent existence of universals and arguing that these were merely verbal labels used to describe groups of experiences
- What is Occam’s razor?
The simplest explanations are often the best or most correct.
- Why is William of Occam’s philosophy considered to be a turning point in philosophy?
Occam emphasized the direct knowledge of the world through sensory experience, marking a significant shift away from metaphysical concerns and towards empirical philosophy. Despite his radical views, William of Occam maintained a belief in God, emphasizing the necessity of faith in the absence of empirical proof.
