Chapter 10 Study Questions

Question 1

1.Briefly describe the work of Jean Lamarck (1744–1829)

Answer 1

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829) was a French naturalist known for his theory of evolution. Lamarck proposed the idea that species changed over time due to environmental influences, which led to structural adaptations in plants and animals. He introduced the concept of the inheritance of acquired characteristics, suggesting that traits acquired during an organism’s lifetime could be passed down to offspring. Lamarck’s theory laid the groundwork for later evolutionary thought, despite being largely superseded by Darwinian evolution.

Question 2

2. Briefly describe the life and work of Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), including his view of evolution and social Darwinism

Answer 2

Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), was an English philosopher who embraced the concept of evolution and extended it to human societies and the human mind. He introduced the ideas of evolutionary associationism, combining empiricism, associationism and nativism, which emphasized the role of environmental events in shaping behaviour and social Darwinism. He
advocated for a laisses-faire system in government and society where individuals and societies evolve toward greater perfection through natural selection. He suggested that traits and people are complex much like the human nervous system which grew increasingly complex and highly differential because of evolution.

Question 3

3. Describe the Spencer-Bain principle.

Answer 3

The Spencer-Bain principle, associated with the combination of his ideas and those of Alexander Bain, suggests that the frequency of a behavior increases if it is followed by a pleasurable event and decreases if it is followed by a painful event.

Question 4

4. Briefly describe the life and work of Charles Darwin (1809–1982)

Answer 4

Born in England, Darwin originally had a passion for the study of insects (entomology) which put him in contact with professors and researchers at Cambridge where he eventually attends. It was there he met John Henslow who invited him to the voyage aboard the Beagle.

Question 5

5. Describe the following aspects and elements of his work his voyage on the Beagle

Answer 5

Darwin would embark on the HMS Beagle in 1831, the voyage was a multi-year long journey that took him to south America, the Galapagos islands, Tahitia, and many other places. His observations, specifically on the Finches of the Galapagos islands would influence his later work.

Question 6

6. Describe the following aspects and elements of his work his life after the voyage

Answer 6

Upon returning to England, Darwin faced various health issues and postponed the publication of his revolutionary theory of evolution for over 20 years. He married his cousin Emma Wedgwood in 1839 and had 10 children. He continued to work on his theory, which was finally published in his epoch-making book, “On the Origin of Species,” in 1859.

Question 7

7. Describe the following aspects and elements of his work his theory of evolution also as applied to the earth and humans

Answer 7

Darwin proposed the concept of natural selection where evolution just happens to adapt to the environment around a creature, leading to the concept of survival of the fittest. He based this theory of the Finches he saw on the Galapagos islands who had varying beak lengths to get food from different areas, and the Finches who didn’t adapt dying off. He believed humans and apes share an ancestor and human emotions are remnants from animal emotions that were created for survival.

Question 8

8. Describe the following aspects and elements of his work his influence on science and psychology.

Answer 8

Darwin’s theory had a profound impact on the fields of science and psychology. It contributed to the development of various psychological areas, including developmental psychology, animal psychology, comparative psychology, psychobiology, and behavioral genetics. Furthermore, his ideas were instrumental in shaping the schools of functionalism and behaviorism. Additionally, his influence is seen in the contemporary field of evolutionary psychology, which attempts to explain social behavior through an evolutionary lens.

Question 9

9. Briefly describe the life and work of Sir Francis Galton (1822–1911)

Answer 9

Grandson to Erasmus Darwin, Galton would publish his first book Narrative of an Explorer in Tropical South Africa in 1853 and become commissioned by the British government to teach camping procedures to soldiers he’d publish a second book The Art of Travel in 1855. He’d become president of the Royal Geographical Society in 1856

Question 10

10. Describe his work and beliefs with respect to the measurement of intelligence

Answer 10

He believed intelligence was based off sensory acuity as the sharper the senses the more of the world you can see humans know the world through their senses, thus, sharper the senses the better they see the world. Believed intelligence was hereditary.

Question 11

11. Describe his work and beliefs with respect to eugenics

Answer 11

Galton encouraged the idea of selective breeding, even going as far to say the government should be responsible for pairing up intellectually intelligent individuals together and pay for their child’s education. He believed those with lower intelligence were ruining the gene pool and should be discouraged from breeding.

Question 12

12. Describe his work and beliefs with respect to nature versus nurture

Answer 12

Galton initially believed in nature over nurture, believing the role of inheritance in shaping individual characteristics was much more than the environment one grew up in. But, in his later writings, he would recognize the role of nurture in the developmental process.

Question 13

13. Describe his work and beliefs with respect to word association test

Answer 13

Galton invented a method of word recognition by writing down 75 words then documenting his responses to each word. What he observed was that his responses were drawn from childhood experiences and the procedure revealed aspects of the mind never revealed before. This method of word association would help to understand the unconscious mental operations and cognitive processes. Free association and the recognition of unconscious motivation would both later be features of psychoanalysis

Question 14

14. Describe his work and beliefs with respect to mental imagery

Answer 14

Galton discovered that not everyone has the same capabilities of forming mental images.

Question 15

15. Describe his work and beliefs with respect to anthropometry

Answer 15

He opened the first anthropometry laboratory at the London International Health Exhibition which examined the various physical and psychological traits between individuals.

Question 16

16. Describe his work and beliefs with respect to statistical correlation (as well as regression toward the mean)

Answer 16

Galton was the first to notice the regression towards the mean, this is the concept that overtime outliers will naturally regress back towards the mean. For example, an extremely tall parent will have a shorter child and thus overtime, the family will regress back towards normal height levels. Additionally, he documented this data on scatterplots, a practice still used in modern studies. His work also went on to inspire Carl Pearson to create a mathematical equation to examine the relationship between two variables, this was called coefficient of means expressed as r.

Question 17

17. Describe his work and beliefs with respect to his contributions to psychology

Answer 17

He’s most known for his use of questionnaires and twin studies as well as his emphasis on the individual differences between people in cognitive studies and human behaviour.

Question 18

18. Who is James McKeen Cattell (1860–1944)? Summarize his role in psychology

Answer 18

James McKeen Cattell was known as the Galtonian in America as he was inspired by Galton’s emphasis of individual differences and knowledge acquirement with intelligence closely related to sensory acuity and largely inherited. He would open the first psychological laboratory for undergraduate students at the University of Pennsylvania and introduced mental testing which lead to the school of functionalism, which would later be challenged leading to a decline in interest in such testing would be

Question 19

19. Briefly describe the life and work of Alfred Binet (1857–1911)

Answer 19

Alfred Binet was a prominent French psychologist known for his contributions to intelligence testing. He started his career working with Jean-Martin Charchot in the field of hypnotism, finding that he could manipulate the symptoms and sensations of a hypnotized patient by moving a magnet across their body. This would later be disproven and found to be due to Binet’s suggestion beforehand which caused the patients to act off what they were told.

Question 20

20. Describe his work in individual psychology

Answer 20

Binet, similar to Galton and Cattell, was primarily interested in understanding the differences among individuals rather than focusing on what they have in common. In 1896, he collaborated with his assistant Victor Henri to propose a list of variables on which individuals differ, particularly focusing on complex intellectual processes that vary according to age. This notion of “individual psychology” aimed to study cognitive abilities directly, rather than solely through sensory acuity.

Question 21

21. Describe his work in assessing deficiencies in intelligence

Answer 21

Around 1899, Binet began to focus on the assessment of intellectual deficiency. Teaming up with Theodore Simon, he worked to create a methodology that could differentiate intellectually normal children from those with subnormal intellectual capabilities. This initiative led to the development of tests to measure cognitive abilities and identify children with mental retardation accurately.

Question 22

22. Describe his work in developing the 1905 Binet-Simon scale of intelligence

Answer 22

Binet, along with Simon, introduced the Binet-Simon scale of intelligence in 1905. This scale consisted of 30 tests that ranged in difficulty, evaluating both motor development and cognitive abilities. The tests were ordered by complexity, enabling the classification of children based on their performance in comparison to their age group.

Question 23

23. Describe his role in developing the intelligence quotient (IQ)

Answer 23

Binet strongly opposed the use of the intelligence quotient, arguing that intelligence is too intricate to be represented by a single numerical value. However, it was William Stern who initially proposed the idea of mental age divided by chronological age to yield an intelligence quotient. This concept was later refined and popularized by Lewis Terman, who introduced the abbreviation “IQ” and the formula that multiplied the quotient by 100.

Question 24

24. Describe his legacy and notion of mental orthopedics.

Answer 24

Binet believed that children with low test scores could significantly benefit from special attention and stimulation. He emphasized the plasticity of intelligence and rejected the notion that intelligence is a fixed quantity. Binet’s legacy included advocating for mental orthopedics, which focused on improving a child’s will, attention, and discipline, thereby enhancing their ability to learn and grow intellectually. He also emphasized the importance of educators’ understanding and support for students with diverse intellectual capabilities.

Question 25

25.Briefly describe the life and work of Charles Spearman (1863–1945), including his work in factor analysis and his two-factor theory of intelligence

Answer 25

Charles Spearman (1863–1945) began his career in the English army before turning to psychology and studying with prominent figures such as Wundt and Külpe. Spearman's notable contributions include the development of factor analysis, a statistical technique for exploring relationships between variables. He proposed a two-factor theory of intelligence, suggesting that intelligence consists of a general factor (g) and specific factors (s) related to individual abilities. Spearman emphasized the hereditary nature of intelligence, asserting that g is primarily determined by inheritance.

Question 26

26. Contrast Spearman and Binet’s views regarding the nature of intelligence

Answer 26

Alfred Binet and Charles Spearman held contrasting views on the nature of intelligence. Binet emphasized the diversity of intelligence, believing that it was multifaceted and modifiable through experience. His approach investigated the different variables that contribute to an individual's intellectual capabilities, focusing on the complexities and nuances of cognitive processes. On the other hand, Spearman proposed a unitary concept of intelligence, suggesting that it could be boiled down to a general factor (g) that represents a single underlying mental capacity. Unlike Binet, Spearman's approach emphasized the unity of intelligence and its largely hereditary nature.

Question 27

27. Briefly describe the life and work of Cyril Burt (1883–1971), including the scandal associated with his work

Answer 27

Cyril Burt (1883–1971) was influenced by the eugenics ideas of Galton, and he continued Spearman's work by supporting the notion that intelligence is largely inherited. He conducted studies on identical twins reared together and apart, reporting high correlations in intelligence measures for identical twins. However, a scandal later emerged around Burt's work, with allegations that he had fabricated data. Some claimed that his co author did not exist, and discrepancies were found in his reported data. The controversy surrounding Burt's work underscored broader debates regarding the heritability of intelligence and its implications for social and educational policies.

Question 28

28. Briefly describe the life and work of Henry Herbert Goddard (1866–1957)

Answer 28

Henry Herbert Goddard (1866–1957) was a prominent figure known for his work in the field of intelligence testing and eugenics during the early 20th century. He was born into a New England Quaker family and received his education at Haverford College.

Question 29

29. What was Henry Goddard's study of the Kallikak family

Answer 29

Goddard's most notorious work involved the study of the Kallikak family, where he used the Binet-Simon scale to assess the intelligence of an individual named Deborah Kallikak. He coined the term "moron" to describe her intellectual level, leading to the notion of feeble-mindedness being linked to immoral and criminal behavior, as depicted in his book "The Kallikak Family: A Study in the Heredity of Feeble-Mindedness" (1912). Goddard's research reinforced the Galtonian belief that intelligence was largely determined by genetics. He advocated for the sterilization or segregation of those deemed mentally deficient, a view that influenced the enactment of sterilization laws in many states.

Question 30

30. What was Henry Goddard's his involvement in the testing of immigrants to the United States during the early 20th century

Answer 30

Goddard was involved in the testing of immigrants at Ellis Island during the early 20th century. He believed that he could identify mental deficiencies in immigrants based on their test performances, leading to the deportation of thousands of individuals. Despite concerns about the influence of testing conditions and the accuracy of translation, Goddard maintained that the immigrants' poor performance was primarily due to inherent intellectual limitations rather than external factors. His efforts significantly contributed to the increase in the deportation of immigrants during his time, even though he later expressed regret over the loss of potential labor to the United States.

Question 31

31. Briefly describe the life and work of Lewis Madison Terman (1877–1956)

Answer 31

Lewis Madison Terman (1877–1956) was a prominent American psychologist known for his significant contributions in the field of intelligence testing and the study of gifted individuals

Question 32

32. Including his work in developing the Stanford-Binet tests

Answer 32

Terman played a crucial role in refining the Binet-Simon scale for use in the United States, creating the Stanford-Binet intelligence scale. Through careful modifications and additions, he standardized the test to ensure that the average score for each age group was 100. He published the first revision in 1912 and the 1916 revision, which introduced the term "IQ" or intelligence quotient.

Question 33

33. Including his beliefs regarding the inheritance of intelligence

Answer 33

Terman, much like other researchers of his time, believed that intelligence was predominantly inherited. He shared the view that low intelligence was often the root cause of criminal and antisocial behavior. He associated high intelligence with moral behavior, stating that individuals with low intelligence were prone to criminal activities and other social issues

Question 34

34. Including his study of gifted children

Answer 34

Terman conducted an extensive longitudinal study on gifted children, which he termed "Termites." He defined genius as having an IQ score of 135 or higher and identified and studied 1,528 gifted children, observing them over the years. His research aimed to demonstrate the success and positive outcomes of individuals with high IQs. The study, which commenced in 1921, continued for decades, and it showed that these gifted individuals continued to excel academically and professionally throughout their lives. He found that most gifted children had parents with above-average intelligence, participated in a wide range of activities and learned to read at an early age

Question 35

35. Briefly describe the life and work of Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886–1939), including her work in dispelling myths regarding women and people classified as mentally defective and her work with gifted children

Answer 35

Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886–1939) was a pioneering psychologist known for challenging prevailing beliefs about women and intelligence. Despite facing gender discrimination in her career, she made significant contributions to the field. Her work involved dispelling myths about women's intellectual inferiority and highlighting the societal constraints that limited their opportunities. Hollingworth conducted research on individuals labeled as mentally defective, demonstrating that many were grappling with social and personal adjustment issues rather than inherent intellectual deficiencies. Additionally, she emphasized the importance of appropriate educational strategies for gifted children, advocating against mistreatment and advocating for tailored educational experiences to foster their development.

Question 36

36. Briefly describe the life and work of Robert M. Yerkes (1876–1956), including his work in testing soldiers

Answer 36

Robert M. Yerkes (1876–1956) was a prominent figure in the field of psychology, particularly recognized for his contributions to intelligence testing during World War I. He was instrumental in the development of a testing program for the U.S. Army, aiming to identify individuals with mental deficiencies and classify recruits based on their intelligence levels. Yerkes proposed the use of a point-scale method, which involved assigning points for items passed, thus allowing for more efficient administration and statistical analysis. He led the creation of the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests, catering to both literate and illiterate individuals. While the program was viewed as a practical success initially, subsequent evaluations have questioned its effectiveness in identifying mentally unfit individuals, highlighting the complexities of assessing intelligence within large groups.

Question 37

37. How did Yerkes' work rekindle nativists’ views of intelligence and what was the response?

Answer 37

Yerkes's work with the Army Alpha and Beta tests reignited nativists' concerns about the decline in the nation's intelligence level. A significant proportion of white male soldiers were found to have intelligence equivalent to that of a 13-year-old or lower. Yerkes, along with Terman and Goddard, attributed this decline to immigration and the reproduction of individuals considered "intellectually inferior." They advocated for selective immigration policies and limitations on the rights of those with low mental ability, such as the right to vote.

Question 38

38. Summarize the research question around intelligence as a single general factor or multiple factors.

Answer 38

The research question regarding intelligence centered on whether it is a single, generalized factor or comprised of various distinct attributes. Early proponents of a single-factor view included figures like Spearman and the developers of the Stanford-Binet test. This view was later challenged by researchers like Joy Paul Guilford and Louis L. Thurstone, who suggested the existence of multiple intelligence factors. This debate has persisted over the years, with various psychologists proposing differing theories and models of intelligence.

Question 39

39. Briefly describe the work of David Wechsler (1896–1981) and his contribution to modern intelligence testing

Answer 39

David Wechsler, known for his significant contributions to modern intelligence testing, developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). These tests differed from earlier versions such as the Stanford-Binet by establishing a standard score of 100 for the average performance, eliminating the age-linked scoring system. Wechsler's work helped refine the measurement and assessment of intelligence, and his scales remain widely used in contemporary psychological assessments.