Chapter 11 Study Questions

Question 1

Describe the four stages of early American psychology

Answer 1

Stage One: Moral and Mental Philosophy (1640-1776)
Psychology was integrated with religious indoctrination, heavily influenced by British universities.
American Enlightenment started in 1714 with the widespread influence of John Locke’s ideas.

Stage Two: Intellectual Philosophy (1776-1886)
Psychology emerged as a separate discipline influenced by Scottish common sense philosophy.
Notable figures such as Thomas Reid contributed to the acceptance of sensory information and self-examination.

Stage Three: The U.S. Renaissance (1886-1896)
Marked by a shift towards individual differences, adaptation to the environment, and practicality, aligning with evolutionary theories.
Saw the rise of various practices like physiognomy, phrenology, mesmerism, and spiritualism.

Stage Four: U.S. Functionalism (1896 and Beyond)
Represented the convergence of science, practicality, individualism, and evolutionary theory in functionalism, characterized by the work of John Dewey and Edward Titchener

Question 2

Specify the eight characteristics of functionalist psychology

Answer 2

1. Opposed structuralism and emphasized understanding the function of the mind rather than just its static contents.
2. Focused on the practical application of psychological findings in various domains of life.
3. Advocated for a broadened scope of psychology, including research on animals, children, and individuals with psychological disorders.
4. Utilized an eclectic methodology ranging from mazes to mental tests.
5. Emphasized the importance of understanding motivation and how it drives behavior.
6. Recognized both mental processes and behavior as valid subjects of study.
7. Displayed a greater interest in the uniqueness of individuals rather than their commonalities.
8. Directly or indirectly influenced by the ideas of William James.

Question 3

Briefly describe the life and work of William James (1842–1910)

Answer 3

William James (1842–1910) was an American philosopher and psychologist, renowned for his profound impact on the fields of psychology and philosophy

Question 4

Describe William James’s crisis

Answer 4

James encountered a significant personal crisis, marked by periods of intense self-doubt and psychological turmoil. This existential struggle drove him to delve into philosophical and psychological inquiries about the fundamental nature of human existence, consciousness, and the self. His crisis fostered a deep curiosity about the complexities of the human mind and experience, laying the groundwork for his groundbreaking contributions to psychology

Question 5

Describe William James’s book

Answer 5

Among his notable contributions is “The Principles of Psychology” (1890), a comprehensive and influential text that significantly shaped the discipline of psychology. In this seminal work, James provided a detailed exploration of various psychological phenomena, including perception, consciousness, and the nature of the mind. Notably, his discussion of the “stream of consciousness” became a cornerstone of modern psychology, redefining the way scholars perceive the continuous flow of subjective experiences within the human mind

Question 6

Describe William James’s view of Wundt’s approach to psychology

Answer 6

James held a critical perspective on Wilhelm Wundt’s approach to psychology, particularly concerning Wundt’s exclusive reliance on introspection as the principal method for studying mental processes. In contrast, James advocated for a more inclusive approach to psychology, incorporating a diverse array of empirical methods, including introspection, to explore the intricate facets of human experience. James’s approach emphasized the importance of considering both internal and external factors in understanding the complexities of human psychology

Question 7

Describe William James’s concept of stream of consciousness

Answer 7

James introduced the groundbreaking concept of the “stream of consciousness,” emphasizing the continuous and dynamic nature of human thought processes. This concept revolutionized the study of human psychology, challenging the prevailing idea that consciousness could be deconstructed into discrete and isolated elements. James’s emphasis on the interconnected and fluid nature of consciousness became a fundamental principle in the development of modern psychological theory and practice

Question 8

Describe William James’s treatment of habits and instincts

Answer 8

James recognized the fundamental role of habits and instincts in shaping human behavior and adaptation. He emphasized the significance of these psychological processes in facilitating human adjustment to various environmental circumstances. James highlighted the adaptive nature of habits and instincts, underscoring their crucial role in promoting human survival and resilience, thereby solidifying their significance within the framework of his psychological theories

Question 9

Describe William James’s concepts concerning the self

Answer 9

James proposed a nuanced understanding of the self, distinguishing between the “I” (the observing self) and the “Me” (the empirical self). This distinction underscored the multifaceted nature of human identity, portraying the self as both an object of introspective awareness and the subject of conscious experience. James’s complex portrayal of the self emphasized the importance of introspective reflection and self-awareness in understanding the intricacies of human consciousness

Question 10

Describe William James’s theory of emotions

Answer 10

James formulated a comprehensive theory of emotions that emphasized the interconnected relationship between physiological responses and subjective emotional experiences. He postulated that physiological reactions precede conscious emotional experiences, highlighting the crucial role of bodily responses in shaping the subjective perception of different emotional states. James’s theory provided a holistic understanding of the complex interplay between the physiological and psychological aspects of human emotional experiences, significantly contributing to the development of modern theories of emotion

Question 11

Describe William James’s position with respect to free will and voluntary behaviour

Answer 11

James espoused a strong advocacy for the concept of free will and voluntary behavior, emphasizing the significance of individual agency in shaping human actions and choices. He challenged deterministic perspectives that solely attributed human behavior to external influences, asserting that human actions are also influenced by personal choices and subjective intentions. James’s stance on free will underscored the importance of personal agency and conscious decision-making in understanding the complexities of human behavior and cognition

Question 12

Describe William James’s pragmatic philosophy

Answer 12

James was a prominent proponent of pragmatism, advocating for the assessment of ideas and beliefs based on their practical consequences and real-world applications. He emphasized the dynamic and contextual nature of truth, asserting that the validity of an idea should be evaluated based on its effectiveness in enhancing human experiences and facilitating practical outcomes. James’s pragmatic philosophy emphasized the continuous evolution of truth and knowledge, highlighting the importance of considering the real-world implications of ideas and theories in shaping human understanding and progress

Question 13

Describe William James’s contributions to psychology

Answer 13

James’s contributions to psychology were multifaceted and far-reaching. He significantly expanded the scope of psychological inquiry by incorporating evolutionary principles and functionalist perspectives into his work. His advocacy for diverse research methods, including introspection and empirical observation, broadened the horizons of psychological exploration, fostering a comprehensive understanding of human behavior, cognition, and consciousness. Furthermore, James’s emphasis on the practical applications of psychological theories and concepts contributed to the development of pragmatic approaches within the discipline, profoundly influencing the evolution of modern psychology and its various subfields

Question 14

Briefly describe the life and work of Hugo Münsterberg (1863–1916)

Answer 14

Hugo Münsterberg (1863–1916) was a prominent figure in the field of psychology, known for his significant contributions to clinical, forensic, and industrial psychology. His background in experimental psychology under Wilhelm Wundt greatly influenced his later work. Münsterberg held the belief that psychological research should be applicable to practical settings, which led to his development of applied psychology

Question 15

Describe Münsterbergs work in the applied fields of clinical psychology, forensic psychology, and industrial psychology

Answer 15

In clinical psychology, Münsterberg treated various psychological disorders, including phobias and addiction, focusing on the power of suggestion and reciprocal antagonism. He emphasized the importance of expectation in the treatment process and rejected the idea of treating psychosis due to its neurological basis.

Münsterberg’s contributions to forensic psychology were groundbreaking, as he applied psychological principles to legal matters. He emphasized the unreliability of eyewitness testimony and advocated for the use of psychological methods instead of harsh interrogation tactics. His work led to the development of the lie detector, a device that detects changes in physiological responses to detect lying. His book “On the Witness Stand” (1908) provided valuable insights into the unreliability of witness testimony.

In the field of industrial psychology, Münsterberg played a significant role in the establishment of the discipline. His books “Vocation and Learning” (1912) and “Psychology and Industrial Efficiency” (1913) delved into methods for personnel selection, work efficiency improvement, and effective marketing and advertising techniques. He emphasized the importance of considering individual differences when assigning tasks, highlighting the need for a more personalized approach to industrial psychology

Question 16

Briefly describe the life and work of Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930), including the sex discrimination she faced, her invention of the paired-associate learning technique, and her work in self-psychology

Answer 16

Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) faced significant sex discrimination in her pursuit of a career in psychology. Despite her exceptional performance at Harvard University, she was denied a doctoral degree because of her gender. Her invention of the paired-associate learning technique became a widely used method for studying memory. This technique involved presenting subjects with pairs of stimuli, such as colors and numbers, and assessing their ability to recall the associations.

Calkins’s work in self-psychology was influenced by her dissatisfaction with the impersonal nature of mainstream experimental psychology. She emphasized the importance of the concept of self in psychology and criticized the field for dismissing it. Her deep religious convictions and her experiences as a woman in academia shaped her perspective on the interconnectedness of selves in everyday experiences. Despite the challenges she faced, Calkins made substantial contributions to personality theory, promoting the idea of self-psychology during a time when behaviorism was dominant. She became the first female president of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1905 and the first female president of the American Philosophical Association in 1918, leaving a lasting impact on the field of psychology

Question 17

Briefly describe the life and work of Granville Stanley Hall (1844–1924)

Answer 17

Granville Stanley Hall (1844–1924) was a prominent figure in the history of psychology, known for his significant contributions to various areas of the field

Question 18

Describe Halls work at Clark University

Answer 18

In 1888, Hall became the first president of Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts. During his tenure, he played a vital role in shaping the landscape of American psychology. Hall’s influence extended to teaching and mentoring, as he supervised numerous Ph.D. candidates, significantly impacting the growth of psychology in the United States. His work at Clark University established it as an institution open to female graduate students, demonstrating Hall’s support for women’s education

Question 19

Describe Halls interest in developmental psychology

Answer 19

Hall was deeply fascinated by evolutionary theory, leading him to propose the recapitulation theory of development. He believed that each individual reenacted all evolutionary stages of the human species during their lifetime, calling it recapitulation theory. This theory was influenced by the work of Ernst Haeckel and emphasized the significance of the evolutionary process in the development of an individual. Hall’s notable work “Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education” (1904) delved extensively into various aspects of adolescence, including the psychological and physiological changes that occur during this period

Question 20

Describe Halls opposition to coeducation

Answer 20

Hall vehemently opposed the idea of coeducation, arguing that segregating the sexes would facilitate social progress by curbing the intensity of the adolescent sex drive. He believed that the separation of genders allowed for the sublimation of sexual desires into productive social behaviors, thus preventing the potential negative consequences of sexual interactions during adolescence. Hall’s views on coeducation were influenced by his understanding of the recapitulation theory, which suggested that adolescence was a critical period in the development of the reproductive organs in women and that it was essential to ensure the normalization of the menstrual period

Question 21

Describe Halls interest in psychology and religion

Answer 21

Hall maintained a keen interest in the intersection of psychology and religion. He viewed religious conversion during adolescence as a natural and necessary process, emphasizing the psychological aspect rather than theological dogma. His views on sin were psychological, characterizing it as a sense of limitation and imperfection rather than an inherent evil. Hall’s work in this area culminated in the founding of “The American Journal of Religious Psychology and Education” in 1904, which explored various empirical studies related to religious conversion and psychological processes

Question 22

Briefly describe the life and work of Francis Cecil Sumner (1895–1954)

Answer 22

Francis Cecil Sumner, born in 1895, was an influential African American psychologist and the first African American to earn a PhD in psychology. Despite facing significant racial barriers, Sumner received his doctorate from Clark University in 1920 under the guidance of Granville Stanley Hall. Following his education, Sumner held teaching positions at various institutions and advocated for segregated higher education for African Americans, a stance that has been viewed with some nuance, as his public statements may not have aligned with his private beliefs. He eventually became a significant figure at Howard University, where he helped improve the quality of the psychology department. Sumner’s legacy was instrumental in the development of African American psychologists, and his impact extended beyond the field of psychology, as evidenced by his student Kenneth Clark

Question 23

Briefly describe the life and work Kenneth Clark (b. 1914)

Answer 23

Kenneth Clark, a prominent figure in the history of psychology, was deeply influenced by Sumner. Clark’s experiences as Sumner’s student at Howard University led him to pursue psychology instead of medicine. He went on to obtain his BA and MA from Howard before earning his PhD from Columbia University. Clark and his wife, Mamie Phipps Clark, conducted influential research on the effects of segregation and discrimination on children’s development. Their work, particularly the famous doll studies, played a pivotal role in the Brown v. Board of Education case, which led to the end of legal segregation in the United States. Clark’s contributions to the field of psychology and his advocacy for social change earned him recognition within the APA, where he became the first African American president in 1971

Question 24

Summarize Hall’s legacy at Clark University

Answer 24

Granville Stanley Hall’s legacy at Clark University was significant and enduring. He served as the university’s president for 31 years and played a crucial role in establishing psychology as a prominent discipline within the institution. Hall’s efforts in inviting influential European psychologists, including Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung, to Clark University furthered the acceptance of psychoanalytic theory in the United States. His emphasis on psychology at Clark University solidified its reputation as a top institution for the study of psychology, alongside other notable universities such as Harvard, Johns Hopkins, Columbia, and the University of Chicago

Question 25

Briefly describe the life and work of John Dewey (1859–1952)

Answer 25

John Dewey (1859–1952) was a prominent American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer associated with the functionalist school of thought. Born in Burlington, Vermont, Dewey initially pursued philosophy, later developing a strong interest in psychology. He was greatly influenced by the ideas of William James and the functionalistic concepts of Wilhelm Wundt

Question 26

Describe Deweys position with respect to the role of reflexes

Answer 26

Dewey’s primary argument was against the artificial and misleading division of behavior into elements, similar to the analysis of reflexes into sensory processes, brain processes, and motor responses. He emphasized that behavior should be viewed as a coordinated system directed toward a goal, usually related to the survival of the organism. His ideas were foundational in the establishment of functionalism in psychology

Question 27

Describe Deweys concept of progressive education

Answer 27

Additionally, Dewey made significant contributions to the concept of progressive education, advocating for a student-oriented approach that emphasizes learning by doing rather than rote memorization. He believed that education should stimulate personal interest and problem-solving skills, preparing students to effectively navigate a complex society

Question 28

Describe Deweys pragmatist philosophy

Answer 28

Dewey was also an active proponent of pragmatic philosophy, emphasizing the practical value of philosophical concepts and advocating for the application of democratic ideals to social action

Question 29

Briefly describe the life and work of James Rowland Angell (1869–1949)

Answer 29

James Rowland Angell (1869–1949), another influential figure in functionalism, was initially a philosophy student but later shifted his focus to psychology under the influence of John Dewey. He became an instrumental figure at the University of Chicago, where he contributed significantly to the development of functionalism. Angell’s work emphasized the study of mental operations, emphasizing their role in mediating between the needs of the organism and the environment. He highlighted the importance of mental functions in helping organisms survive, promoting the application of psychological principles to various fields such as animal behavior, child psychology, and habit formation

Question 30

Briefly describe the life and work of Harvey Carr (1873–1954).

Answer 30

Harvey Carr (1873–1954) was an American psychologist known for his contributions to functionalism. Carr’s work focused on mental activity, particularly the acquisition, fixation, retention, organization, and evaluation of experiences and their subsequent utilization in the guidance of conduct. He emphasized the role of adaptive acts in the learning process, highlighting how needs motivate behavior and how perception and behavior are crucial in adapting to the environment. Carr’s promotion of maze studies and his belief in the importance of both introspection and experimentation significantly influenced the field of psychology

Question 31

Describe the work of James McKeen Cattell (1860–1944) in applied psychology

Answer 31

James McKeen Cattell (1860–1944) was a prominent figure in the development of psychology in the United States. Cattell’s work in applied psychology was characterized by his practical approach and his belief in the real-world applications of psychological principles. He emphasized the importance of the usefulness of psychological knowledge and its impact on various aspects of human life, such as education, law, government, and other social institutions. Cattell’s practical mindset led him to emphasize the application of psychological principles in everyday contexts, advocating for their integration into educational practices and public policies.

Cattell’s significant contributions extended to his involvement in various publications, including his ownership and editorship of several journals such as Science, Psychological Review, and Popular Science Monthly. He also played a pivotal role in founding the Psychological Corporation, which aimed to provide services to both education and industry. Cattell’s influence at Columbia University was substantial, leading to the institution becoming a leading producer of Ph.D.s in psychology during his tenure there.

Question 32

Describe the life and work of Robert Sessions Woodworth (1869–1962) and dynamic psychology

Answer 32

Robert Sessions Woodworth (1869–1962) was another key figure in the functionalist movement in the United States. Woodworth’s concept of dynamic psychology centered around the idea that human behavior should be understood in terms of an organism’s needs, drives, and the interaction between the organism and its environment. Woodworth emphasized the importance of internal conditions in activating an organism’s behavior, positing that an individual’s responses to a given environment were shaped by the specific needs or drives they were experiencing.

Woodworth’s contribution to psychology included an eclectic approach to various psychological perspectives and a willingness to consider diverse ideas and viewpoints. His emphasis on the pragmatic application of psychology was reflected in his openness to a wide range of concepts and theories. Woodworth’s influential book, “Experimental Psychology,” served as a widely used text in the field for several decades

Question 33

How was functionalism at Columbia different from functionalism at Chicago?

Answer 33

Functionalism at Columbia, under the leadership of James McKeen Cattell and later Robert Sessions Woodworth, was characterized by a strong emphasis on practical applications and the integration of psychological principles into real-world contexts. Columbia University, during this period, became a hub for producing Ph.D.s in psychology and played a significant role in advancing the functionalist perspective. The focus on applied psychology, the encouragement of an eclectic mindset, and the emphasis on practical, real-world problem-solving distinguished functionalism at Columbia from the functionalist movement at Chicago, which was more centered around the ideas of John Dewey, James Rowland Angell, and Harvey Carr. The emphasis on the application of psychological principles in various fields and the pragmatic orientation of functionalism at Columbia set it apart from the theoretical and philosophical focus of functionalism at Chicago

Question 34

Describe the life and work of Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949)

Answer 34

Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949) was a prominent American psychologist known for his extensive contributions to the field of psychology. He was born in Williamsburg, Massachusetts, and had a prolific career that spanned several decades. His work significantly impacted the understanding of animal behavior and learning theory

Question 35

Describe the state of animal research prior to Thorndike (including Morgan’s canon and Washburn’s work)

Answer 35

Prior to Thorndike, animal research was characterized by various approaches that often involved anthropomorphizing animal behavior. George John Romanes, an early researcher in comparative psychology, attributed human emotions and thoughts to nonhuman animals, leading to anecdotal and anthropocentric accounts. However, Conwy Lloyd Morgan later introduced “Morgan’s canon,” which cautioned against anthropomorphism and emphasized the need for understanding animal behavior relative to human cognition. Margaret Floy Washburn, another notable figure, focused on inferring consciousness in animals through controlled behavior experiments, similar to contemporary cognitive psychology

Question 36

Describe Thorndike’s puzzle box

Answer 36

Thorndike’s puzzle box was a significant experimental apparatus he used to study trial-and-error learning in animals, particularly cats. This puzzle box involved a door that could be opened by a specific response from the animal. Thorndike’s experiments with this apparatus provided valuable insights into the principles of incremental learning and the automatic nature of learning without conscious thought

Question 37

Describe Thorndike’s connectionism

Answer 37

Thorndike’s connectionism referred to his theory that neural bonds between sensory impressions and responses changed in strength based on experiences. He believed that these connections or bonds influenced an organism’s behavior, and their strengthening or weakening depended on the satisfying or annoying consequences associated with the behavior

Question 38

Describe Thorndike’s concept of the laws of exercise and effect (including the way they were later renounced and modified, respectively)

Answer 38

Thorndike initially proposed the laws of exercise and effect. The law of exercise included the principles of use and disuse, suggesting that the repetition of associations strengthened them, while lack of use weakened them. The law of effect emphasized that a satisfying state of affairs reinforced associations, while an annoying state weakened them. However, in 1929, Thorndike revised his position, rejecting the law of exercise and modifying the law of effect. He found that practice alone did not necessarily strengthen associations, and that punishment did not always weaken them

Question 39

Describe Thorndike’s his theory of transfer of training.

Answer 39

Thorndike’s theory of transfer of training addressed the extent to which learning in one context transferred to another. He proposed the identical elements theory, suggesting that the similarity between two learning situations determined the transferability of knowledge. His research indicated that the practical application of skills and knowledge was more beneficial than the rote strengthening of cognitive faculties

Question 40

Describe the life and work of James Mark Baldwin (1861–1934)

Answer 40

James Mark Baldwin (1861–1934) was a prominent figure in the early development of American psychology, known for his contributions to various areas such as social psychology, child psychology, and evolutionary theory. He played a significant role in establishing the link between evolution and functional psychology, which had a lasting impact on the field. Born in Columbia, South Carolina, Baldwin pursued his academic career with notable achievements and controversies.

Baldwin earned his PhD in philosophy at Princeton University after a brief period with Wundt in Germany. He started his teaching career at Lake Forest College before setting up Canada’s first psychology laboratory at the University of Toronto. His intellectual journey led him to France, where he interacted with renowned psychologists like Charcot and Janet. Upon his return to the United States, Baldwin established the psychology program at Princeton University and revived Johns Hopkins University’s psychology laboratory.

Despite his significant contributions to the field, Baldwin faced personal challenges when he was involved in a scandal during a raid at a house of prostitution in 1908. He subsequently spent the rest of his life primarily in Europe and Mexico, where he continued his influential work in psychology and popularized the discipline.

Baldwin’s work had a profound impact on the field of psychology, particularly in the areas of social and child psychology. His ideas on child cognitive development laid the foundation for much of Jean Piaget’s subsequent work. Additionally, his theory, known as the Baldwin Effect, proposed in 1896, remains a topic of discussion, as it attempts to establish a connection between learning and evolution.

Question 41

What happened to functionalism as a movement within psychology?

Answer 41

As for the fate of functionalism within the realm of psychology, the movement did not fade away like structuralism but rather got absorbed into mainstream psychology. While functionalism had been successful in offering a systematic viewpoint, its success led to its integration into broader psychological perspectives. According to scholars like Chaplin and Krawiec (1979) and Hilgard (1987), functionalism declined as a distinct school of thought, partly due to the rise of its intellectual successor, behaviorism.

Functionalism, with its emphasis on the practical functions of the mind, played a crucial role in shaping modern psychology. However, its assimilation into other psychological perspectives signified its evolution and integration within the broader framework of the discipline.