Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

NURS 2514 > Week 1 - Cancer > Flashcards

Week 1 - Cancer Flashcards

1
Q

Define cellular regulation

A
  • all functions carried out within a cell to maintain homeostasis
  • includes responses to extra cellular signals
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What are two key concepts of cellular regulation?

A
  1. Proliferation

2. Differentiation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Describe proliferation and differentiation in relation to cancer cells

A
  • cancer cells fail to differentiate and excel at proliferation
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Cancer is a group of _______

A

More than 200 diseases

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What is cancer characterized by?

A
  • uncontrolled and unregulated growth of cells (proliferation)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Who does cancer occur in?

A
  • in people of all ages & ethnicities
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Approximately how many people in Canada have a chance of developing cancer?

A
  • 44% (1 in 2.3)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Describe the chances of developing cancer for each sex: is it similar chances?

A
  • men 45%
  • women 43%
    = very similar
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

What are the top 3 cancers to occur in men?

A
  1. Prostate
  2. Lung & bronchus
  3. Colorectal
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What are the 3 most common cancers to occur in women?

A
  1. Breast
  2. Lung and bronchus
  3. Colorectal
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Which age group has the highest percentage of cancer cases?

A

50-69 (44.9%)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What is the leading cause of death in ever Canadian province?
What is the second?

A
  • since 2008, cancer has been the leading cause (30% of deaths)
  • heart disease is in second (21% of deaths)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

What are risk factors for developing cancer? (4)

A
  • excessive body weight
  • lack of physical activity
  • unhealthy eating habits
  • excessive exposure to the sun
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

What are some lifestyle habits that reduce the risk of developing cancer? (3)

A
  • avoid or reduce exposure to known or suspected carcinogens
  • eat a balanced diet (includes variety)
  • exercise regularly
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What are carcinogens?

A
  • any substance that is known to cause or promote the formation of cancer
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

What are some examples of carcinogens?

A
  • cigarette smoke

- excessive sun exposure

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

What is a neoplasm

A
  • a tumour

- an abnormal mass of cells which grow and divide without response to normal regulatory controls

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

What is a benign tumour?

A
  • noncancerous tumour

- does not spread to other tissues or metastasize

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

What is a malignant tumour?

A
  • cancer
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

What is the cause of cancer?

A
  • cause is considered unknown
  • but current theory of cancer formation involves multiple sequential mutations that impairs a cell’s ability to control it’s cell cycle and replication
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

What are the 4 characteristics of malignant cells?

A
  1. Proliferation without limits ( will endlessly divide)
  2. Evasion of apoptosis
  3. Acquisition of vasculature
  4. Invasion of other tissue and metastasis
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Why do malignant cells acquire vasculature?

A
  • as the cells & tumour grows, it needs lots of O2 and nutrients and will become ischemic
  • they acquire vasculature to overcome this
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

List the phases of the normal cell cycle

A
  1. G1
  2. S stage
  3. G2 stage
  4. Mitosis
  5. G0
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

What occurs during G1

A
  • growth phase

- relatively dormant, some RNA and protein synythesized

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

What occurs during S phase

A
  • DNA synthesis
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

What occurs during G2

A
  • more growth
  • prep for mitosis
  • some RNA synthesized
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

What occurs during mitosis

A
  • cellular division

- the parent cell splits into 2 daughter cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

What occurs during the G0 phase?

A
  • resting phase

- cells are not in the process of cellular division

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

What two types of genes are affected by mutations that contribute to the development of cancer?

A
  1. Proto-oncogenes

2. Tumour suppressor genes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

What do proto-oncogenes do

A
  • regulate normal cellular processes

- ex. Promote growth

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

What are proto-oncogenes called if they are mutated?

A
  • they become oncogenes
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

What do tumour suppressor genes do?

A
  • suppress growth
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

What may happen if tumour suppressor genes are mutated?

A
  • cell may not be able to stop growing
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

What are two examples of tumour suppressor genes?

A
  1. BRCA1 (mutation in this gene can cause breast cancer)

2. P53 (most commonly mutated gene)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

Research suggests that human neoplasms result from a. Combo of mutations that activate ______ and inactivate ________

A
  • activate oncogenes

- inactivate tumour suppressor genes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

What is an oncogene

A
  • gene that has potential to cause cancer

- was once a proto-oncogene

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

What is carcinogenesis

A
  • process by which normal cells become transformed into malignant cells
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

What does carcinogensis typically involve?

A
  • changes in DNA

- most require multiple changes in DNA , which is caused by multiple factors

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

List 5 things that may cause mutations in the DNA

A
  1. Genetic (ex. BRCA1 mutation)
  2. Chemical
  3. Environment (ex. UV rays)
  4. Viral or immunological
  5. Or from causes not yet identified
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

What are the 3 steps in cancer development

A
  1. Initiation
  2. Promotion
  3. Progression
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

What occurs during initiation stage of cancer?

A
  • the normal cell gets altered by genetic mutation
  • genetic mutation can occur thru inherited mutation, after exposure to a carcinogen, an error during DNA replication, etc.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

What occurs during the promotion stage of cancer?

A
  • the presence of promoting factors increase cancer development
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

What can impact promotion of cancer?

A
  • lifestyle factors

- exposure to steroid hormones such as estrogen and testosterone

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

Describe how estrogen and testosterone can cause promotion during puberty

A
  • during puberty, these hormones are produced to tell cells in reproductive organs to enter the cell cycle & proliferate
  • but at the same time, it will also promote the cancer cells to continue dividing
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

Describe the progression stage of cancer

A
  • this when you have evidence of clinical disease

- the cancer then spreads & metastasizes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

What cancer is associated with Epstein Barr virus

A
  • burkitts lymphoma
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

What cancer is associated with human immunideficiency virus ( HIV)

A
  • kaposi sarcoma
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

What cancer is associated with hep B virus

A
  • hepatic Elul are carcinoma
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

What cancer is associated with human papillomavirus

A
  • squamous cell carcinoma (especially cancer of the cervix)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

What are the 6 local effects of tumours?

A
  1. Compress blood vessels & outgrow their blood supply
  2. Nutrient trapping
  3. Replace normal tissue = loss of function
  4. Liberate toxins & enzymes = destroy normal & tumour tissue
  5. Obstruct passageways
  6. Pain
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

How do tumours cause pain

A
  • by putting pressure on sensory nerves or a visceral structure
  • inflammation and bleeding also contribute to pain
52
Q

Is pain an early sign of cancer?

A
  • it’s rarely an early sign
53
Q

What does tumours compressing blood vessels and outgrowing their blood supply cause?

A
  • causes ischemia, inflammation, and tissue necrosis
54
Q

List two examples of how tumours can block a passageway?

A
  • in the lungs can block air flow

- can obstruct the colon

55
Q

List the 6 systemic effects of cancer

A
  1. Weight loss, tissue wasting
  2. Fatigue
  3. Bleeding
  4. Anemia
  5. Infections
  6. Paraneoplastic syndromes
56
Q

What causes weight loss, tissue wasting, and fatigue? (4)

A
  • anorexia
  • increased catabolism ( breakdown)
  • nutrient trapping
  • inflammation
57
Q

What is cachexia?

A
  • tissue/muscle wasting —> weight loss
58
Q

How does the inflammatory response contribute to cachexia

A
  • the release of cytokines contributed to increased catabolism & muscle wasting
  • cytokines also cause decreased appetite, nausea, etc.
59
Q

What causes bleeding due to tumours? (3)

A
  • tumour necrosis and erosion of blood vessels

- bone marrow suppression

60
Q

Bone marrow suppression can occur as a systemic effect due to what 3 things?

A
  1. A specific tumour
  2. Invasion of the marrow
  3. Secondary to therapy
61
Q

What bleeds are specifically difficult to treat?

A
  • GI bleeds
62
Q

What causes anemia due to a tumour? (3)

A
  • can result from blood loss
  • iron deficiency (due to nutrient trapping)
  • or bone marrow suppression/invasion
63
Q

Why do infections occur as a systemic effect of cancer?

A
  • bone marrow suppression/invasion =decreased WBC = immunocompromised
64
Q

What other factors can predispose cancer patients to infections?

A
  • immobility, muscle wasting, fatigue can cause pooling of respiratory secretions and stasis or urine = predispose to opportunist infections
65
Q

What are paraneoplastic syndromes?

A
  • symptoms that occur that are not attributed to the direct effects of a tumour or metastasis
  • any unusual symptoms
66
Q

What are examples of paraneoplastic syndromes

A
  • abnormal hormones or cytokines secretion by a tumour
  • bone marrow suppression
  • dementia
  • abnormal clotting
  • fever
  • cachexia
67
Q

Malignant tumours spread by producing ______

A
  • secondary tumours that are identical to the original primary tumour
68
Q

What 3 ways do tumours spread?

A
  1. Invasion of neighbouring tissues
  2. Metastasis
  3. Seeding
69
Q

Describe invasion of a tumour

A
  • when tumour cells grow into adjacent tissue
70
Q

How does invasion occur?

A
  • tumour cells lack adhesion molecules & secrete enzymes that allow them to break down the confining connective tissue
71
Q

What is metastasis

A
  • when tumour cells break free of a tissue and are circulated to distant tissues in the blood or lymph
72
Q

Where do secondary tumour attach during metastasis

A
  • either contained by local lymph nodes

- attach to capillary beds they come across

73
Q

What is the most common site of metastasis ? Why?

A
  • the lungs

- pulmonary capillaries are often the first beds encountered by systemic tumour cells

74
Q

What are all 5 main sites of metastasis? What is the second most common location after the lungs?

A
  1. Brain & cerebrospinal fluid
  2. Lungs
  3. Liver (second most common)
  4. Adrenals
  5. Bone
75
Q

What is seeding

A
  • involves the spreading of tumour cells along membranes or within fluids other than blood or lymph
76
Q

What type of cancer commonly spreads thru seeding? Why?

A
  • ovarian

- it is surround by a continuous peritoneal membrane

77
Q

What are the 3 ways tumour can be classified by?

A
  1. Anatomical site / tissue of origin
  2. Historical analysis (grading of severity)
  3. Extent of disease (staging)
78
Q

what are 4 examples of cancer classified based off tissue of origin

A
  1. Carcinomas
  2. Sarcomas
  3. Lymphomas and leukemias
79
Q

Where do carcinomas originate from?

A
  • from epithelial tissues

- includes the ectoderm and endoderm

80
Q

What is included in the embryonal ectoderm

A
  • skin
  • glands
  • epithelium
81
Q

What is included in the endoderm

A
  • mucus membrane of respiratory tract, GI, and GU tracts
82
Q

Where do sarcomas originate from

A
  • the embryonal mesoderm
83
Q

What is included in the mesoderm

A
  • CT, muscle, bone, and fat
84
Q

Where do lymphomas and leukemias originate from

A
  • the hematopoietic system
85
Q

What is the hematopoietic system?

A
  • system responsible for producing the element of blood (RBC, WBC, platelets)
86
Q

What is the difference between lymphomas and leukemias

A
  • lymphoma = originates in the lymph nodes

- leukemias = occurs in the bone marrow

87
Q

What is the difference between cancer grading and staging?

A
  • grading = based on how the cancer cells look, determines how fast it will grow
  • stage = says the how much cancer is in ur body, where it is, and how far it has spread
88
Q

How many grades are there for abnormal cells?

A

4

89
Q

Describe grade 1 cancer cell

A
  • cells differ slightly from normal cells

- cells are well differentiated

90
Q

Describe grade 2 of cancer cells

A
  • cells are more abnormal

- moderately differentiated

91
Q

Describe grade 3 of cancer cells

A
  • cells are very abnormal

- poorly differentiated

92
Q

Describe grade 4 of cancer cells

A
  • cells are immature & primitive
  • undifferentiated
  • cell of origin is difficulty to determine
93
Q

What is staging useful in?

A
  • determining the prognosis (course of development) of a cancer & the most appropriate therapy
  • determines the extent of the disease process within the body
94
Q

How many different stages of cancer are there?

A

5 ( ranges from 0-4)

95
Q

Describe stage 0 of cancer

A
  • cancer in situ
  • cancer can be removed & cured
  • new, early cancer
96
Q

What does situ mean

A
  • in its original place

- has not spread

97
Q

Describe stage 1 of cancer

A
  • tumour limited to tissue of origin
  • localized tumour growth
  • removal = cured
98
Q

Describe stage 2 of cancer

A
  • limited local spread to lymph nodes but not beyond these local nodes
  • removal of tumour and lymph nodes = cured
99
Q

Describe stage 3 of cancer

A
  • extensive local & regional spread to lymph nodes
100
Q

Describe stage 4 of cancer

A
  • metastasis
  • 2ndary tumour present
  • rarely cured and typically lethal
101
Q

Which stages of cancer are considered or potentially curable? Which aren’t?

A
  • stages 0-2 = curable

- stages 3&4 = not

102
Q

What classification system is often used to stage a cancer?

A

TNM classification system

103
Q

What does the T stand for in TNM classification

A
  • tumour size & invasiveness

- involves measuring the diameter and different sizes correlate to a stage depending of the type of cancer

104
Q

What does the N stand for in TNM classification

A
  • spread to lymph Nodes
105
Q

What does M stand for in TNM classification

A
  • metastasis

- if does = stage 4

106
Q

Are the specifics of the TNM classification system the same for every cancer?

A
  • no it changes for each cancer
107
Q

What is lymphoma

A
  • malignant tumours of the lymphocytes
108
Q

Does lymphoma typically involve B or T lymphocytes?

A
  • 90% involve B lymphocytes
109
Q

What are risk factors for lymphoma (7)

A
  • previous exposure to radiation
  • chronic immunosuppressive
  • autoimmune disease
  • HIV
  • hep B/C
  • helicobacter pylori infection
  • exposure to herbicides & pesticides have also been suspected
110
Q

What is the most common clinical manifestation of lymphoma

A
  • lymphadenopathy
111
Q

Describe the development of lymphoma

A
  • typically begins in a single lymph node but will metastasize to adjacent nodes & other areas of the body
112
Q

What nodes are most commonly affected by lymphoma (3)

A
  • cervical
  • supraclavicular
  • axillary
113
Q

What are key characteristics of lymphoma (4)

A
  • asymmetric enlargement of lymph nodes
  • weight loss
  • fatigue
  • immunosuppression
114
Q

What are the 2 main categories of lymphomas

A
  1. Hodgkin disease

2. Non-hodgkin’s disease

115
Q

Describe cellular origin in hodgkins vs non-hodgkins

A
  • hodgkins = b lymphocytes –> reed sternburg cells

- non-hodgkins = b lymphocytes (90%) and t lymphocytes (10%)

116
Q

Describe the extent of disease in hodgkins vs no hodgkins

A
  • hodgkins = localized to regional, but may be bulky

- non = disseminated (spread)

117
Q

What are B symptoms? (3)

A
  • fever
  • night sweats
  • Weight loss
118
Q

Describe the presence of B symptoms in hodgkins vs no hodgkins

A
  • hodgkins = common

- non = less common

119
Q

Describe extranodal involvement in hodgkins vs nonhodgkins

A
  • extranodal involvement = spread to an atomic sites other then the lymph nodes
  • hodgkins = rare
  • non = common
120
Q

Describe stage 1 of hodgkins

A
  • involvement of a single lymph node or a single extranodal site
121
Q

Describe stage 2 of hodgkins

A
  • involvement of 2 or more lymph node regions on the same side
122
Q

Describe stage 3 of hodgkins

A
  • involvement of lymph nodes on both sides of the diaphragm
123
Q

Describe stage 4 of hodgkins

A
  • disseminated disease of one or more extralymphatic organs or tissues with or without associated lymph node involvement
124
Q

What is the Canadian Cancer Society’s 7 Steps to Heakth?

A
  1. Be a non-smoking and avoid second hand smoke
  2. Eat well
  3. Be active
  4. Use sun sense
  5. Follow cancer screening guidelines
  6. Visit ur doctor or dentist if u notice anything abnormal
  7. Follow safety instructions at home and work for storing and disposing of hazardous materials
125
Q

What is meant by “eat well”

A
  • 5-10 servings of fruits and veggies
  • high fibre
  • low fat
  • low alcohol

NURS 2514 (75 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions