Social Flashcards
Pluralistic Ignorance
Bystander apathy
-Others aren’t attending to the emergency so it must not be an emergency.
Diffusion of responsibility
Bystander apathy
-there are other people around, someone else will help.
Evaluation Apprehension
Bystander apathy
-No one else is helping, if I help, then will I be judge?
Empathy - Altruism Hypothesis
Empathic concern provides altruistic motive for helping
*most research supports this hypothesis
Negative State Relief Model
People help others to reduce their own distress.
We experience empathy for someone experiencing pain, we feel sad, upset, distress and in order to relieve this feeling we help.
*less evidence that supports this hypothesis
Realistic Conflict Theory
Prejudice
-result of direct competition for scarce resources
Social Identity Theory
Prejudice
Natural tendency to categorize others into groups
Favor in-group members to increase self-esteem
Scape Goat Theory
Prejudice
Dominant group use minorities to vent their frustrations
*Nazi Germany
Authoritarian Personality Theory
Prejudice
Being responsible for behavior due to a harsh upbringing
*9 personality traits
Terror Management Theory
Prejudice
Biological drive to stay alive
Aware of own existence and threats to existence
Awareness of mortality = sense of terror
Intrahumanization Theory
Prejudice
in-group = fully human
out-group = animal like
Primary emotions (fear, anger) = non human emotions
Secondary emotions (guilt, shame) = human emotions
Fundamental Attribution Error
*Attribution of other’s behavior
-Overestimate dispositional attributes
-Underestimate situation attributes
*affected by culture
The Actor- Observer Bias
-Overestimating other’s behaviors to dispositional attributes
-Overestimating your own behavior to situational attributes.
Ultimate Attribution Error
*Attributions made about entire group.
-Negative behaviors of in-group = situational factors
-Negative behavior of out-group = dispositional factors
Group Attribution Error
-Believe that an individual group member beliefs are reflective of those in the entire group.
or
-Believe that the decision drawn by a group reflect those of each individual member.
Self-verification bias
We seek feedback from and prefer to spend time with others who confirm our self-concept (whether positive or negative)
Illusory Correlation
We overestimate the relationship between 2 variables that are not related or slightly related.
Base Rate Fallacy
Tendency to ignore base rate information (info about most people) and instead be influenced by the distinctive features of the case being judged.
Gambler’s Fallacy
Belief that a particular chance event is affected by previous events and that chance event will ‘even out’ in the short run.
Counterfactual Thinking
Tendency to imagine what might have happened but did not and can involve imagining either better or worse outcomes.
Illusion of Transparency
When people overestimate the extent to which others can recognize their internal state.
Conjunction Fallacy
When we estimate that the odds of 2 uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event occurring alone.
Elaboration Likelihood Model
Central Route
-high elaborative processing
-thoughtful
-message is seen as personal
-Neutral or negative mood
Peripheral Route
-low elaborative processing
-automatic evaluation
-message is unimportant
-Good mood
Social Judgement Theory
Attitude Changes
*Latitude is affected by Ego involvement
*As ego involvement increases the latitude of
acceptance and non-commitment decreases and
latitude of rejection increases.
- Latitude of Acceptance:
position we find acceptable due to it being close to
our own position. - Latitude of Non-Commitment:
automatically accept or reject , but will consider
because they are moderately different from their
position. - Latitude of Rejection:
position we find unacceptable because they are
extremely different from our position.
Overjustification Effect
When we are externally reinforced for engaging in an intrinsically rewarding behavior, the intrinsic interest decreases.
Self-esteem & persuasion
Those with moderate self-esteem are most susceptible to influence
Intelligence & persuasion
Higher level of susceptibility is associated with lower level of intelligence.
Age & persuasion
Most likely to persuaded are adolescents, young adults and older adults.
Behavioral Economics - Materialism
As materialism increases, well-being decreases
Polarization of materialistic values and goals strongly correlate with
1. compulsive spending
2. engaging in risky health behavior
3. negative self perception.
Behavioral Economics - Scarcity
Having scarcity causes a reduction in mental bandwidth and limits our ability to pay attention, make good decisions, stick with plans an resist temptation.
Information influence
We conform to the judgement of others because we think others know more than us.
Informational influence is usually stronger than normative influence when the task is ambiguous and difficult.
Normative Influence
We conform to the judgement of others to avoid ridicule or rejection.
Moscovici - Minority influence
Minority views must rely on behavioral style
To be affected minorities must be 1. Consistent 2. Concise 3. Confident
Opinion change due to minority influence = private acceptance.
Opinion change due to majority influence = public conformity
Additive Tasks
-Final output is the sum of the contributions of each member
Compensatory Task
Group output is the average of each members estimate
Disjunctive Task
Group members choose the best solution from those provided by each member. (most competent member)
Conjunctive Task
Performance of entire group is limited by the least competent member. (All members contribute)
Discretionary Task
Group member decide how to combine the contribution of each member.
Mere exposure effect
tendency to like things simply because we see or encounter the repeatedly
Law of attraction
positive relationship between attitude similarity and attraction.
interacting with others with similar attitudes is reinforcing
Pratfall effect
Attractiveness of a person seen as competent increases when the person commits a blunder = humanizing
Attractiveness of a person who is seen as average, decrease when they commit a blunder = confirms they are even less average.
Gain-loss effect
We are more attracted to people who initially do not like us and then change their minds vs. those who constantly voice their liking of us.
We are less attracted to people who initially like us and then change their mind vs. people who express constant dislike for use
Double Shot Hypothesis
Men believe if a woman is emotionally involves that doesn’t mean they have to be sexually involved.
Women believe if a man is sexually involved that doesn’t mean they are emotionally involved, but is a man is emotionally involved then they are sexually involved.
Sherif & Robber’s Care Study
-Demonstrated effectiveness in cooperation to overcome intergroup conflict.
-11 y.o. boys at summer camp placed into 2 groups (made to hate each other through competition)
*Used strategies to reduce conflict between groups.
*Most effective strategy was:
Superordinate Goals
Aronson - Jigsaw Classroom
-Evaluated effects of Superordinate Goals on prejudice and discrimination.
-Small multiethnic groups of children were studied in their classrooms.
-Children were divided into groups
-Each group member had to learn about different subject and teach the other member.
Outcome:
-reduced prejudice and positive effects on self-esteem and empathy of all students
-improved academic performance of ethnic minority students. **
Covert Racism
- Symbolic
(belief prejudice doesn’t exist / members of minority
violate White American values) - Aversive
(Negative unconscious about minority groups/ avoid
minority groups. - Ambivalent
(positive and negative attitudes towards minority
groups/ extreme behavior to reduce feeling of
ambivalence)
Kelly - Covariation Model
People make attributions about another person’s behavior by considering 3 types of information:
- Consensus:
when people do the same thing in similar situations. - Consistency:
does the person typically act this way in these
situations? - Distinctiveness:
does the person act differently in different situations?
Confirmation Bias
Seek and pay attention to information that confirms our attitudes and beliefs.
Ignore information that refutes beliefs.
Hindsight Bias
People inaccurately believe they predicted the event would occur or to overestimate the likelihood that they could have predicted that the event would occur.
Sunk-cost fallacy
Tendency of people to continue to investing resources in an endeavor when they have already invested significant resources that have not produced desired outcomes and are not recoverable.
Representative Heuristic
Ignore base rate and other information and focus on the extent to which the event resembles a prototype (typical case).
Availability Heuristic
Base judgement about the frequency of an event on how easy it is to recall relevant examples of the event.
Anchoring and adjustment heuristic
Estimate the frequency of an event or other values by beginning with a starting point and making upward or downward adjustments.
Simulation Heuristic
We judge the likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to imagine events happening to us or others.
Theory of Planned Behavior
Intention to perform a behavior is the best predictor of behavior.
3 Intention factors:
1. attitude towards the behavior
2. what person believes others should do
2. confidence in the ability to perform the behavior.
Prototype / Willingness Model
Assume that there are 2 paths to engaging in behaviors.
- Reasoned path:
results of a person’s behavior intention - Social reaction path:
result of the person’s willingness to engage in the
behavior in particular circumstances.
*Willingness is determined by ability.
Balance Theory
P-O-X theory
Relationship among the person (P) another person or object (O) and attitude towards the object or event (X).
Relationship between POX are either balanced or unbalanced.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
When people become aware of an inconsistency between 2 of their cognitions, they experience a state of mental discomfort, that they want to relieve.
The person will either:
1. Replace or subtract a dissonant cognition
2. Add a consonant cognition
3. increase importance of a consonant cognition or decrease it.
Communicators are more effective when they are
- Attractive
- Likable
- Credible (most effective)
Brehm- Psychological Reactance
People feel pressure to behave in a particular way and this threatens their personal freedom, they will attempt to regain freedom by doing the opposite of what was requested.
