Lifespan Flashcards
Phonology
-rules for using phonemes (smallest unit of sound in language)
Morphology
-rules governing use of morphemes (smallest unit of language that have meaning)
-“mis”
Syntax
-rules for how words can be combined into sentences
-allows us to understand differences in phrasing can mean the same thing (“ the client signed the release form.” vs. “the consent form was signed by the client.”)
Semantics
-meaning of words, phrases and sentences
-focuses on literal meaning
Pragmatics
-use of meaning of verbal and nonverbal language.
Cooing
6 to 8 weeks
babbling
Nonsensical speech (sounds are not unique to the child’s native language at this time)
3 to 6 months
canonical babbiling
9 months (babbling consistent with language of origin)
echolalia
When a child begins to repeat a word that they hear (typically over and over)
9 months
word comprehension (language dev.)
8 to 9 months
first word
10 to 15 months
vocabulary spirt
15 months
holophrastic speech
Child uses 1 word to describe what they want or state of being.
(“Cold” - “I am cold”)
12 to 15 months
telographic speech
*Child uses 2 words to express what they want
(“I go”)
18 to 24 months
Overextension
-using a word too broadly
*all four legged animals are dogs
Underextension
-using a word too specifically
-calling only plastic plates “plates”
Overregulation
-misapplies rules for plurals and past tense
*“foots”
Language Brokering
-Children who have to translate for their parents.
-both positive and negative effects
positive = strong interpersonal skills, and confidence
negative = anxiety, frustration, embarrassment, role reversal with parents.
Piaget- Moral Development
- Premoral (0 - 5 y.o.)
-limited understanding of rules - Heteronomous ( 5 y.o. - 6 y.o.)
-rules made my authority
-judgement of morality is based off of consequences - Autonomous (10 y.o. - 11 y.o.)
-rules made by agreement
-rules can be changed
-judge morality based off of intention
Kohlberg - Moral Development
- Pre-conventional
L1: Punish & obedience
-acceptable behavior depends of punishment
L2: Instrumental Hedonism
-acceptable behavior depends on if it leads to reward - Conventional
L1: Good boy/Good girl
-acceptable behavior depends on social approval
L2: Law -order orientation
-acceptable behavior depends on violation of the law/rules - Post-conventional
L1: Morality of contract
-acceptable behavior depends on being consistent with democratic chosen law.
L2: Morality of individual principles of consciousness
-acceptable behavior depends on if it’s consistent with broad principles of justice and fairness (universality)
Gillian’s - Moral Development
Level 1: Orientation to individual survival
-morality driven by individual needs/survival
First transition: Selfishness to responsibility
-morality is driven by connection and responsibility to others.
Level 2: Goodness as self-sacrifice
-morality is driven by reliance on others and social acceptance
Second transition: Goodness of truth
-morality is driven by the process of questioning comparative value of self vs. others.
Level 3: Morality of nonviolence
-morality is driven by a heightened understanding of choice between own need and care for other / Do no harm.
Freud’s - Personality Development
(0 to1) Oral
(1 to 3) Anal
(3 to 6) Phallic
(6 to 12) Latent
(12+). Genital
Erikson’s- Psychosocial Development
(0 to 1) Trust vs. Mistrust (Hope)
(1 to 3) Autonomy vs. Shame/doubt (Will)
(3 to 6) Initiative vs. Guilt (Purpose)
(6 to 12) Industry vs. Inferiority (Competence)
(12 to 18) Identity vs. Role confusion (Fidelity)
(18 to 45) Intimacy vs. Isolation (Love)
(45 to 65) Generativity vs. Stagnation (Care)
(65+) Ego integrity vs. dispair (Wisdom)
Authoritative Parents
*High in demand
*High in responsiveness
-clear rules
-involve children in decision making
-respect child’s opinion
-warm & affectionate
*BEST OUTCOME:
-self confidence, independent and cooperative, good social skills
Authoritarian Parents
*High in demand
*Low in responsiveness
-strict rules
-parental control
-harsh punishment
-little affection
OUTCOME:
-insecure, moody, dependent, irritable, poor social skills, lower academic achievement.
*Linked to bullying
-These children are more likely to be the bully
Permissive Parents
*Low in demand
*High in responsiveness
-rarely control children
-encourage them to express their emotions
-supportive of behavior
OUTCOME:
-self centered, immature, rebellious, poor impulse control & social skills, low level of academic achievement.
*Linked to bullying
-These children are more likely to be the victim
Uninvolved-Rejecting-Neglecting Parents
*Low in demand
*Low in responsiveness
-uninvolved in child’s life
-unaware of child’s needs
-parents more concerned with own needs
WORST OUTCOME:
-low self-esteem & self-control, moody, irritable, non-compliant, demanding, poor social skills, poor academic achievement, prone to drug use & anti-social behavior
Kohlberg- Cognitive Developmental Theory (Gender Identity)
- Gender Identity (2 to 3)
(Identifies as male or female) - Gender Stability (4 y.o.)
(Child realizes their gender is consistent over time) - Gender Constancy (6 to 7)
(When conversation skills emerge - understanding
gender is stable and consistent across time and
situation)
*gender behavior doesn’t occur until gender constancy (however, more recent research suggest sooner).
Egan & Perry - Multidimensional model (Gender Identity)
- Membership knowledge (know own gender)
- Gender (see characteristic as similar to others)
- Gender Contentedness (satisfaction)
- Felt Pressure (pressure to conform)
- Intergroup bias (own gender superior)
Marcia’s -Identity Development Model
Achievement - Identity crisis & commitment
Foreclosure - No identity crisis & commitment
Moratorium - Identity crisis & no commitment
Diffusion - No identity crisis & no commitment
Piaget -Construct Theory
- Sensory Motor (0 to 2)
(0 to 1m) Reflexive schema
(1 to 4m) Primary circular reaction (thumb sucking)
(4 to 8m) Secondary circular reaction (shaking a rattle)
(8 to 12m) Coordination circular reaction
(uncovering a rattle and then shaking it)
(12 to 18m) Tertiary circular reaction
(dropping toy from different heights)
(18 to 24m) Internalized of schema
(object permanence, make believe play) - Preoperational (2 to 7)
-representational thought (past and future)
*Thought processes
-Transductive reasoning (illusory correlation)
- Egocentrism (everyone thinks like me)
- Magical Thinking (if I think it, it will happen)
-Animism (the moon is following us)
*Inability to CONSERVE
-centration
(focus on one aspect of an object and exclude the
others)
- Irreversibility
(unable to understand an action can be reversed) - Concrete Operational (7 to 12)
-logical operations
*horizontal decalage
outcomes = math, conservation of numbers, lengths, volume, width. - Formal Operational (12+)
-abstract thought and reasoning
-hypothesizing
-propositional thought
*thought processes
-imaginary audience (everyone is looking at my zit)
-personal fable (why does this always happen to me?)
Vygotsky - Sociocultural Theory
Learning is:
-first interpersonal
-then intrapersonal
Private speech
-self-directive speech
-problem solving
zone of proximal development
-most rapid learning
-gap between current abilities and what a child can do with assistance (SCAFFOLDING)
*Make-believe play creates a zone of proximal development.
Assimilation (Piaget)
using cognitive schemas to understand new objects or situations.
Accommodation (Piaget)
modifying or developing new cognitive schema to new objects or situations.
Secure Attachment (Child & Mother)
Child:
-explores when mother is around
-may or may cry when she leaves
-seeks mother when she returns
-prefers mother to strangers
Mother:
-sensitive
-responsive
Anxious - Ambivalent Attachment (Child & Mother)
Child:
-stays close initially
-distress when she leaves
-angry or resistant when she returns
-fearful of strangers even with mother there
Mother:
-inconsistent with care
Anxious - Avoidant Attachment (Child & Mother)
Child:
-indifferent towards mother
-little distress when she leaves
-avoids her when she returns
-react to mother & strangers similarly
Mother:
-rejecting
-intrusive or overstimulating
Disorganized/ Disoriented Attachment (Child & Mother)
Child:
-fearful of mother
-dazed or confused look
-may or may not be distress when mother leaves
-disorganized/ confused behavior upon return.
Mother:
-Maltreatment
SES & Attachment
-Low SES = more likely to have insecure attachment
- Low SES = more likely to have dismissing attachment patterns.
Culture & Attachment
*Secure attachment is most seen cross culturally.
-Avoidant most common in western cultures
-Resistant most common in Japan, Israel, & collectivistic cultures.
Autonomous Adults
-clear description of childhood relationships
-childhood has secure attachment
Preoccupied Adults
-angry, confused, or passive towards parents when describing childhood.
*there children have resistant attachment
Dismissing Adults
-provide positive descriptions of their childhood relationships.
-reports not accurate.
*their children have avoidant attachment
Development & facial expressions
< 7 months - attend to happy faces
>7 months -attend to fearful faces
10 to 18m - understanding of facial expressions
Emotions & Adulthood
-negative emotions decrease over time (20s to 60s)
-positive emotions increase or remain stable (20s to 60s)
*emotions for 60+ effected by health
Positivity Effect = older adults tend to pay attention and remember more positive memories.
Instrumental aggression
*fulfills needs or desires
-get attention or obtain object
Hostile aggression
*driven by anger
-done to hurt others
-3 types
-physical
-verbal
-relational
Physical-instrumental aggression (age)
starts - 1 y.o.
peaks - 2 y.o.
dominant- 4 y.o.
Parent training - SES & outcomes
-low & high SES = immediate effects
-Low SES with mild sx = less effective
-Follow up at 1 year = Low SES saw less benefit regardless of severity
Nonsocial vs. Social Play
Nonsocial
-Solitary
-On looker
Social
-Parellel
-Associative
-Cooperative
Gender & play
-choose same sex playmate at 2 to 3 y.o.
-occurs even when encouraged for cross gender play
*girls more likely to start before boys
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
-Relationships viewed as unlimited = knowledge seeking.
-Relationships viewed as limited = emotional seeking
*older adults = desire emotionally close friendships
Emotionally Volatile (Attack-Defend) Pattern
*predictor of divorce
*predictor of early divorce
-frequent arguments then make up.
-criticism, contempt, defensiveness, stonewalling
*Contempt is single best predictor of divorce
Emotional Inexpressive (Avoidant) Pattern
*predictor of later divorce
-avoidant of conflict
-couple avoids self-disclosure and expressing emotions
Risk for divorce
-Age (older you are at time of marriage, less likely)
-Lower SES
-Child before marriage
-Previous marriage
-1 or more psychiatric disorders
-High level of neuroticism
Effects of divorce on parents (mother vs. father)
-decreased capacity to parenting ( up to 2 years)
-mother show less affection (less to sons)
-mother is more authoritarian but less consistent
-Father = has similar changes as mother, but bounces back quicker.
-father (limited custody) = more indulgent and more permissive.
Effects of divorce on children (age of divorce)
-preschool = most immediate negative outcomes
*As age increases the long-term effects also increase.
** 9 to 15 y.o. experience the most adjustment problems
Effects of divorce on children (gender)
-Boys = more short & longterm effects
-Girls = short-term effects
*Sleeper effect
Effects of divorce on children (SES)
-Lower SES = more academic & social issues
-Father’s presences is less impactful compared to him paying child support & being authoritarian parent.
Step-parent (1 vs. 2 step-parents)
children do better with only 1 step-parent vs. 2 step-parents and step siblings.
Girls & step-parents
-have more problems vs. boy when adjusting to both stepmothers & stepfathers.
-Girls with stepfathers = hostile, risk of academic and behavioral problems.
-Girls with stepmothers = even greater problems vs. stepfather. (threat to relationship with father and mother).
Boys & step-parents
-Boy with stepfathers = self-concept, adjustment and achievement (when relationship is close).
-Boy with stepmother = view stepmother as additional support.
Living together before marriage & divorce
- Living together before marriage = higher rates
-Living together before marriage = show decrease in divorce within the first year.
*This then shifts and increases the likelihood the
following year.
Marriage, life expectancy & satisfaction
-Married people live longer vs. divorced, widowed and single people.
-Higher rates of life satisfaction.
Walker’s- Cycle of Violence
- Tension building
- Acute battery
- Loving- contrition (honeymoon)
Johnson’s Typology
- Intimate Terrorism (use violence to control partner)
- Violent Resistance (partner retaliates- harm or kill)
- Mutual Violent Control (Both seek control)
- Situational Couple Violence (desire to control situation not relationship)
Gender & Child Sexual Abuse
Females:
-more likely to experience depression and internalized behaviors.
Males:
-more likely to show conduct issues and aggression
*Long-term effects are similar between genders
Bronfenbrenner- Ecological Theory
Micro - child immediate environment
Meso - interaction between child and environment
Exo - peripheral factors to the child’s life
Macro - social and cultural environment
Chrono - events that occur over the lifetime
Fetal Programming Theory
Events during fetal development can have long lasting effects on development.
Baker Fetal Hypothesis
-malnutrition puts infants at risk for heat disease later on in life.
-malnutrition in childhood causes type 2 diabetes in adulthood.
Passive genotype correlation
child inherits genes that predispose them to certain characteristics
parents expose the child to the environment which supports the further development of the characteristics
*most important in infancy / early childhood
Evocative genotype correlation
child’s genetic evoke a reaction from others which reinforces genetic makeup.
*most important in infancy/ early childhood
Active genotype correlation
“niche picking”
child actively seeks experiences that fit their genetic predisposition.
*most important in later childhood
Canalization
tendency for a genetic make up to restrict development outcomes regardless of environment
Dynamic System Theory
*nature and nurture are needed
*combination of biology, environment and our reactions/responses affect our development.
Epigenetic
Study of change in organism’s brought on by gene expression.
*change in phenotype without change in genotype (altering functional gene).
Chromosomal deletion disorders
Prader-Will Syndrome (paternal chromosome 15)
Angelman Syndrome (maternal chromosome 15)
Cri-Du-Chat syndrome (chromosome 5)
Sex chromosomal disorders
Klinefelter’s syndrome (XXY)
Turner’s syndrome (XO)
Rett’s syndrome (MECP-2 gene)
Trisomy 21
95% of all down’s syndrome cases
*extra chromosome in all cells
Risk = maternal older age
* due to error is cell division
Mosaic Trisomy 21
1% of all down’s syndrome cases
only some cells contain an extra chromosome
due to error in cell division
Risk = maternal older age
Translocation Trisomy 21
4% of all down’s syndrome cases
46 chromosomes in all cells, with some having a full or partial 21 chromosome attached to another chromosome.
*no due to older maternal age.
*parents carry a gene for faulty cell division
Risk for SIDS
-Male
-Black or NA
-less than 6 months old (most likely by 2 to 4 months)
-premature birth
-low birth weight
-poor prenatal care
-drug or alcohol use during pregnancy
-pre and post natal exposure to cigarette smoke
-unsafe sleep practice
Reduce likelihood of SIDS
-baby sleeps on back
-breast feeding
-bare crib
-avoid overheating
-sharing room but not bed with baby
Substance use and buffering effect
Religiosity
self-control
parent support
*reduce the adverse effects of stressful life events on substance use.
Social-Interactionist Theory
*biological and social factors = language development
-native capacity and strong desire to be understood and understand others.
Responding to crying
Consistent responding to crying = child crying less (inconsistent findings)
When parent ignore the infants cries with in a 9 week period, infants cried less frequently the next 9 weeks.
***Optimal response to cry is dependent on the severity.
Behavioral Inhibition
Tendency to respond to unfamiliar situations with negative affect and withdrawal.
*associated with anxiety, depression, social anxiety, poor social skills.
*parents of the child were likely socially anxious children.
Authoritative parents - Race and academic outcomes
White children of authoritative parents = correlation with academic success is strong
Black & Asian children of authoritative parents =correlation with academic success is weak.
Personality & Adulthood
Neuroticism = decreases
Extraversion = same
Openness = same
Agreeableness = increases
Conscientiousness = increases
Self-understanding (describes self by)
Early childhood
-age, gender, observable characteristics
Middle childhood
-personality traits
Adolescents
-beliefs and values
Androgyny and outcomes for children
More likely to respond productively to novel situations
Higher self-esteem
More popular than non androgynous peers.
Self-esteem & gender
Males are higher on global self-esteem
Ethological Theory
*Bowlby
Infants and mothers are biologically predisposed to form attachments to ensure the survival of infants.
-preattachment
-attachment-in-the-making
-clear-cut-attachment
-reciprocal relationships
-outcomes of these stages = internal working
models (beliefs about the self, others and the
world)
Social references occurs at
6 months
Separation anxiety starts at
6 to 8 months
Peaks in intensity at 14 to 18 months
Stranger anxiety starts at
8 to 10 months
Declines around 2 years old
Social Information Processing Model
-Aggression in children is due to deficiencies in each step of the model.
- encoding of cues
(aggression confirmation bias) - interpretation of cues
(hostile attribution error) - Clarification of goals
(identify retaliation/ revenge as goal) - Response Search
(aggressive children identify few options for responding / aggression will have beneficial outcomes) - Response Decision
(aggressive children choose aggressive responses bc they believe it will have favorable outcomes) - Behavioral Enactment
(act aggressively/ shows little remorse)
Rejected vs. Neglected children
Rejected
-worse outcomes
-greater loneliness
-low self-esteem
-will not experience improvement in peer status even if they change schools/ social groups.
Neglected
-well adjusted
-rarely engage in disruptive behavior
Helicopter parents- child outcomes
Children
-stress / anxiety
-entitlement
-low autonomy
-low self-regulation
-decreased academic achievement
College age
-depression
-SUD
-Relationship concerns
Rothbart - Temperament
Reactivity (underlying biological process)
-Surgency/extraversion
-Negative affectivity
Self-regulation (process that maintains and and inhibits reactivity)
-Effortful control
Research by Lickel et al. (2014) found that experiencing which of the following self-conscious emotions elicits the greatest motivation to change oneself?
shame
Sleeper Effect
Girls whose parents divorce in preschool show minimal adjustment issues until adolescents.
during adolescents and onward girls experience low self-esteem, emotional problems, pregnancy before marriage (Scandal!) and marrying young.
Highly conflictual intact families vs. Low conflict separated families.
Children from intact but highly conflictual families are more poorly adjusted compared to low conflict divorced families.
