SA neurology Flashcards
1
Q
what are the three divisions of the brain?
A
forebrain
brainstem
cerebellum
2
Q
what are the divisions of the forebrain?
A
cerebral cortex
diencephalon
3
Q
what are the divisions of the brainstem?
A
midbrain
pons
medulla oblongata
4
Q
what are the functional divisions of the spine?
A
C1-C5
C6-T2
T3-L3
L4-S3
5
Q
is the white matter found on the centre or periphery of the spinal cord?
A
peripheral
6
Q
what makes up the white matter of the spinal cord?
A
nerve tracts (sensory and motor)
7
Q
what makes up the grey matter of the spinal cord?
A
interneurons and motor neurons
8
Q
how many pairs of spinal nerves are there?
A
36
9
Q
how many pairs of cranial nerves are there?
A
12
10
Q
where are the motor neurons cell body found?
A
ventral horn of spinal cord
11
Q
where are the cell bodies of sensory axons found?
A
dorsal root ganglion of spinal cord
12
Q
what create myelination of the PNS?
A
Schwann cells
13
Q
what are the three parts of the neuromuscular junction?
A
axon terminal
synaptic cleft
endplate of skeletal muscle
14
Q
where can brain lesions be localised to?
A
forebrain
brainstem
cerebellar
vestibular
15
Q
where can neuromuscular system lesions be localised to?
A
peripheral nerve
neuromuscular junction
muscle
16
Q
what is the ANS responsible for?
A
involuntary actions (visceral functions)
17
Q
what are the two divisions of the ANS?
A
sympathetic
parasympathetic
18
Q
where are the cell bodies of the sympathetic nervous system found?
A
thoracolumbar
19
Q
where are the cell bodies of the parasympathetic nervous system found?
A
craniosacral
20
Q
what happens to the detrusor and sphincters during bladder filling?
A
detrusor - relax
sphincter - tone increases
21
Q
what happens to the detrusor and sphincters during bladder emptying?
A
detrusor - contract
sphincters - relax
22
Q
how can bladder incontinence be classified?
A
UMN
LMN
23
Q
where are lesions for UMN bladder incontinence seen?
A
cranial to sacral spinal cord
24
Q
how do bladders with UMN bladder incontinence present?
A
distended and difficult to express
25
where are lesions causing LMN bladder incontinence seen?
sacral spinal cord
| sacral spinal nerves
26
how do bladders with LMN bladder incontinence present?
distended, overflow and dribble
27
where does the 1st order sympathetic neuron of the eye travel?
brainstem then caudally in cervical spinal cord
28
where does the 2nd order sympathetic neuron of the eye travel?
exits spinal cord at brachial plexus (T1-T3) the travels rostrally in vagosympathetic trunk to the cranial cervical ganglion
29
what does the sympathetic supply to the eye innervate?
pupil dilator
smooth cilaris muscle
smooth muscle of blood supply and sweat glands of head
30
what is the function of grey matter?
information processing
31
what does grey matter of the brain contain?
cell bodies
32
where is grey matter found in the brain?
peripherally
33
where is white matter found in the brain?
centrally (deep)
34
what does white matter contain?
myelinated axon tracts
35
what are the three meninges?
```
dura mater (thick)
arachnoid (thin)
pia mater (thin)
```
36
what is found in the subarachnoid space?
CSF, blood vessels, nerve roots
37
what direction does CSF travel?
caudally
38
what triggers the flow of CSF?
pulsations of blood in choroid plexus
39
what route does CSF take through the brain?
```
lateral ventricles
intraventricular foramen
3rd ventricle
mesencephalic aqueduct
4th ventricle
lateral apertures
subarachnoid space
```
40
what is CN I?
olfactory
41
what is CN II?
optic
42
what is the function of the olfactory nerve?
conscious perception of smell
43
where is the cell bodies of the olfactory nerve found?
olfactory epithelium
44
where do the axons of the olfactory nerve pass through?
cribriform plate (synapse in olfactory bulb)
45
what is the optic nerve myelinated by?
oligodendrocytes (surrounded by meninges)
46
where does the optic nerve enter the skull?
optic canal
47
what is CN III?
oculomotor
48
what is CN IV?
trochlear
49
what does the oculomotor nerve innervate?
dorsal, vental, medial rectus
ventral oblique extraocular
levator palpebrae superioris
50
what does the parasympathetic component of the oculomotor control?
pupillary constriction
51
where is the nucleus of the oculomotor nerve?
midbrain
52
where does the oculomotor, trochlear and abducens nerves exit the skull?
orbital fissure
53
what does the trochlear nerve innervate?
dorsal oblique muscle
54
where is the nucleus of the trochlear nerve?
midbrain
55
what are the functions of the trigeminal nerve?
sensory to face
| motor to masticatory muscles
56
what are the branches of the trigeminal nerve?
ophthalmic
maxillary
mandibular
57
where is the motor nuclei of the trigeminal nerve?
pons
58
where is the sensory nuclei of the trigeminal nerve?
brainstem
59
what is CN V?
trigeminal
60
what is CN VI?
abducens
61
what does the abducens nerve innervate?
lateral rectus
| retractor bulbi
62
where is the nucleus of the abducens?
medulla
63
what is CN VII?
facial
64
what is CN VIII?
vestibulocochlear
65
what does the facial nerve innervate?
muscles of facial expression
| sensory - rostral 2/3 of tongue
66
what is the function of the vestibulocochlear nerve?
hearing and vestibular function
67
what is innervated parasympathetically by the facial nerve?
lacrimal, mandibular, sublingual glands
68
what is CN IX?
glossoparyngeal
69
what is CN X?
vagus
70
what does the glossopharyngeal nerve innervate?
motor - pharynx and palate
| sensory - caudal 1/3 of tongue
71
where is the nuclei of glossopharyngeal and vagus nerve found?
medulla
72
what does the vagus nerve innervate?
motor - larynx, pharynx, oesophagus
| sensory - larynx, pharynx, thoracic/abdominal viscera
73
what is CN XI?
accessory
74
what is CN XII?
hypoglossal
75
what is the function of the hypoglossal nerve?
motor innervation to tongue
76
where is the nucleus of the accessory and hypoglossal nerve?
medulla
77
where do the LMN of the forelimbs originate?
C6-T2
78
where do the LMN of the hindlimbs originate?
L4-S3
79
what are the stages of a reflex?
stimuli
sensory nerve, dorsal root and synapse in grey matter
connects directly or indirectly to motor nerve
80
what is nociception?
perception of pain
81
where in the brain is pain perceived?
forebrain
82
what is tested by testing reflexes?
LMN system
83
what are the functions of the UMN system?
initiate voluntary movement
| maintain muscle tone
84
what is the pyramidal UMN for?
skilled movement (poorly developed in animals)
85
where does the pyramidal UMN system start?
cerebral cortex (pass through pyramids in brainstem)
86
what is the functions of the extrapyramidal UMN system?
tonic mechanism for support of body against gravity
| recruit spinal reflexes
87
where do most extrapyramidal UMN systems start?
brainstem (don't pass through pyramids)
88
what is the function of proprioception?
sensory system detecting position/movement of muscles/joints
89
what tracts are involved in unconscious proprioception?
spinocerebellar
90
what tracts are involved in conscious proprioception?
spinal
91
what is the vestibular system for?
maintaining balance
maintains orientation relative to gravity
maintains position of eyes, neck, trunk, limbs relative to the head
92
what are the 2 divisions of the vestibular system?
peripheral
| central
93
what makes up the peripheral vestibular system?
inner ear
| vestibulocochlear nerve
94
what makes up the central vestibular system?
```
vestibular nuclei (brainstem)
cerebellum
```
95
what in the inner ear contributes the the vestibular system?
3 ducts orientated at right angles to each other filled with endolymph
96
what is the function of the cerebellum?
control motor activity (regulator)
| maintain balance
97
what sign associated with walking will be present if the UMN or LMN is damaged?
paresis/paralysis
98
what sign associated with walking will be present if the general proprioception, cerebellum or vestibular system is damaged?
ataxia
99
where does the optic nerve cross the brain?
optic chiasm
100
where is the lesion if an animal has no menace or pupillary light reflex?
before optic chasm (eye or optic nerve)
101
where is the lesion if an animal has no menace but a functioning pupillary light reflex?
forebrain
102
what is the function of the forebrain?
behaviour
decision making
conscious perception of sensory systems
103
what are the functions of the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS)?
arouse cortex
awake brain to conscious level
prepare brain to receive sensory information
104
what should be observed on a neurology consult?
mentation
behaviour
posture
gait
105
where can lesions be to cause problems with mentation?
forebrain
| brainstem
106
what ways can mentation be described?
```
alert
disorientated/confused
depressed
stuporous (unconscious but feel pain)
comatose
```
107
where is a lesion of a disoriented/confused animal usually found?
forebrain
108
where is a lesion that effects the behaviour of an animal found?
forebrain
109
where is a lesion found that causes circling?
forebrain (circle towards the lesion)
110
what are the most common postural defects?
head tilt
| head turn
111
where is a lesion found that causes a head tilt?
vestibular system
112
where is a lesion found causing a head turn?
forebrain (brainstem sometimes)
113
what are the two types of rigidity?
decerebrate
| decerebellate
114
what is a decerebrate rigidity?
all limbs extended and rigid
115
where is a lesion found if there is decerebrate rigidity?
brainstem
116
what is decerebellate rigidity?
extension of forelimbs
117
where is a lesion found if there is decerebellate rigidity?
cerebellum
118
what is the difference in mentations between decerebrate and decerebellate rigidity?
decerebrate - comatose
| decerebellate - normal
119
how do patients with Schiff-sherrington present?
hyperextension of thoracic limbs and paralysis of pelvic limbs
120
where are lesions causes schiff-sherrington found?
thoracic or cranial lumbar spine
121
how can gait be described?
ataxia
paresis
paralysis
122
where will a lesion be found if there is ataxia?
spinal
vestibular (off balance)
cerebellar (drunk)
123
what is ataxia?
uncoordinated gait
124
what is paresis?
weakness/reduced voluntary movement
125
what is paralysis?
complete loss of voluntary movement
126
what are the types of paresis?
ambulatory
| non-ambulatory
127
what are the 4 parts of a neurological clinical exam?
postural reaction
spinal reflex/muscle tone
spinal pain
cranial nerves
128
what is being tested during a postural test?
awareness of precise position/movement of the body (proprioception)
129
what tests can be done for postural reactions?
paw postion
hopping
placing response
130
what is the most important spinal reflex to test?
withdrawal
131
what are the two most reliable myotactic reflex tests?
patellar
| perineal
132
what areas can the cutaneous trunci reflex be used for?
brachial plexus
| T3-L3
133
what is looked at when observing the reflex response?
pain perception
134
how is spinal pain assessed?
```
palpate spine (increasing pressure)
move neck (resistance/reluctance)
move tail
```
135
what are the cranial nerve tests?
```
palpebral
corneal
physiological nystagmus
menace response
nasal mucosa stimulation
pupillary light response
gag
```
136
what nerves does the palpebral reflex test?
trigeminal (input)
| facial (output)
137
what nerves does the corneal reflex test?
trigeminal (input)
| abducens/facial (output)
138
what nerves does the physiological nystagmus test?
vestibulocochlear (input)
| oculomotor, trochlear, abducens (output)
139
what is the physiological nystagmus test particularly useful for?
patients with raised intracranial pressure (puts pressure on nerves)
140
how can the vestibular system be challenged when assessing nystagmus?
put animal upside down
141
what is strabismus?
abnormal position of the eyeball that the animal can't overcome
142
what is nystagmus?
rhythmical, involuntary movements of the eye
143
what is horners syndrome a sign of?
sympathetic disfunction to the eye
144
what is seen in small animals with horners syndrome?
miosis
3rd eyelid protrusion
ptosis of upper eyelid
145
what is seen in horses with horners syndrome?
miosis
ptosis of upper eyelid
excessive sweating
146
what is assessed with nasal mucosa stimulation?
trigeminal, forebrain, brainstem
147
what is assessed by the menace response?
optic, forebrain, cerebellum, brainstem, facial
148
what is tested by the pupillary light response?
optic, brainstem, oculomotor
149
what is tested by the gag reflex?
glossopharyngeal, vagus, brainstem
150
where is the lesion if the dog having seizures?
forebrain
151
what are possible clinical signs of forebrain lesions?
```
disorientation/depression
contralateral blindness
normal gait
circling, head press, pacing
decreased postural response
seizure/behaviour change
```
152
what are possible clinical signs of brainstem lesions?
```
depression, stupor, coma
CN III-XII deficit
vestibular signs
paresis
decerebrate rigidity
decreased postural response
respiratory/cardiac abnormality
```
153
what are possible clinical signs of cerebellar lesions?
```
normal mentation
abnormal menace
vestibular signs
hypermetria/ataxia
intention tremors
decerebellate rigidity
```
154
what are possible clinical signs of vestibular lesions?
head tilt
nystagmus
ataxia
positional strabismus
155
what is spinal shock?
flaccid paralysis with loss of spinal reflexes
156
when does spinal shock happen?
after acute severe injury to spinal cord
157
how long does it take reflexes to return in spinal shock cases?
up to 12 hours
158
what is a grade 1 spinal injury?
no deficit just spinal pain
159
what is a grade 2 spinal injury?
ambulatory paresis
160
what is a grade 3 spinal injury?
non-ambulatory paresis
161
what is a grade 4 spinal injury?
paralysis
162
what is a grade 5 spinal injury?
paralysis and loss of pain sensation
163
what is the main clinical sign of neuropathies?
reduced reflex
164
what are neuropathies?
damage to nerves
165
how do polyneuropathies effect the forelimb and hindlimb reflexes?
reduce both
166
what is the main clinical sign of myopathies?
generalised weakness/exercise intolerance
