- In the initial stages of pregnancy, which organ serves as the primary source of pregnancy-related hormones? __________ - Subsequently, which organ assumes control of hormone production? _________

- corpus luteum (only first several weeks) - placenta

Lecture 25 Flashcards by Priscilla Gallardo

In the initial stages of pregnancy, which organ serves as the primary source of pregnancy-related hormones? __________
Subsequently, which organ assumes control of hormone production? _________

corpus luteum (only first several weeks)
placenta

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hCG= ___________
- prevents ________ of ______ ______ and stimulates its growth and _________ activity

human chorionic gonadotropin
- involution; corpus luteum; secretory

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At what stage of pregnancy do hCG levels peak: early, mid, or late (around week 40)?

EARLY pregnancy

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Placental lactogen (aka ______________)
- makes _______ more available to fetus and _____ _____ to the mom

human chorionic somatomammotropin
- glucose; fatty acids

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Three functions of progesterone during pregnancy
1. __________ premature uterine contractions and menstruation
2. ___________ endometrial stromal cells differentiation into ______ cells –> preparing the lining for ___________
3. __________ mammary alveoli development

inhibit
stimulate; decidual; implantation
stimulate

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Which hormone prevents premature uterine contractions and menstruation during pregnancy?

progesterone

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_____________: transformation of endometrial stroll cells into specialized decimal cells
- stimulated by ____________ hormone

decidualization
- progesterone

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________ cells transform the endometrial lining into a receptive and supportive environment for the fertilized egg to ______

decidual; implant

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At which stage of pregnancy do progesterone and estradiol levels peak: early, mid, or late (around week 40)?

both exhibit their highest concentrations in the LATE stages of pregnancy

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At what stage of pregnancy does cortisol achieve its peak concentration? ____________
- ___________ mobilization of stored _______ sources to meet the growing needs of the fetus
- __________ development of the fetal ________

progressively rise throughout pregnancy, but have highest concentration in the late third trimester
- stimulate; energy
- stimulate; lungs

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Are progesterone and estradiol synthesized during the initial weeks of pregnancy or only at the end?

THROUGHOUT pregnancy (initially low levels though)

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_________: prepare the birth canal for a smooth delivery by softening the cervix and loosening pelvic ligaments
- produced by ______ _____, ________, and ________

relaxin
- corpus luteum; decidua; placenta

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During pregnancy…
- tidal volume _________
- due to increased ________ demand
- growing uterus also pushes the ________ upwards, limiting its ability to fully contract and expand–> results in _______ (difficult breathing)

increases
oxygen
diaphragm; dyspnea

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__________: enlarging uterus pressing upward on the stomach, causes the reflux of gastric contents into the __________

heartburn; esophagus

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__________: enlarged twisted veins that appear bulging or rope-like just beneath the surface of the skin, typically occur in the ______

varicose veins; legs

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Factors that contribute to hemorrhoids, varicose veins, and edema in pregnant women
- increase in total body _______, ______ volume (by up to 40-50%) and cardiac output
- this extra blood volume puts _______ pressure on the veins, particularly those in the lower body
- hormonal:______________ relaxes the smooth muscle walls of the veins
- uterus enlarges, it puts pressure on the major blood vessels in the ______, further hindering blood flow from the lower body back to the _______
- ________ (family history), excessive weight gain, standing or sitting for long periods

water; blood
- increased
- progesterone
- pelvis; heart
- genetics

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What happens to total body water during pregnancy: increase or decrease?
what about blood volume, cardiac output, and urine volume?

increase
ALL INCREASE

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Frequent urination and urgency common during pregnancy rise from a combination of factors
- increased _____ _____: more fluid processed by kidneys
- _____________ relaxes the smooth muscle tone in the _________ wall, making it contract more frequently even with a small amount of urine
- the growing uterus- physically compresses the ________

blood volume
progesterone; bladder
bladder

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Factors that contribute to constipation during pregnancy
- hormonal changes, _________ relax smooth muscle throughout the body, including the _______ tract, allowing more water to be absorbed
- ________ from the growing uterus on the _____, making it harder to push stool out during bowel movements

progesterone; digestive
pressure; rectum

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Two typical skin changes during pregnancy
- changes in _________ (such as the development of the _____ _____)
- _______ _______

pigmentation; linea nigra
stretch marks

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Stretch marks during pregnancy due to a combination of factors
- ______ skin expansion during pregnancy
- hormonal: high ______ levels
-weaken ______ fibers: making skin more susceptible to tearing under tension
-decrease _______ production: limits the skin’s ability to recover from rapid expansion

rapid
cortisol
-collagen
-elastin

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____________: a dark vertical line that appears on the abdomen during pregnancy
- caused by elevated levels of _______ and ________ stimulating hormone (MSH) which stimulate _________ to produce more ______ to specific located areas

linea nigra
- estrogen; melanocyte; melanoctytes; melanin

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________: the physiological process that leads to the delivery of the baby (contraction and cervical changes leading to delivery)

labor

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______________: irregular, relatively mild uterine contractions that occur during pregnancy, often without progressing to full labor

Braxton Hicks contractions; “false labor”

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Towards the end of pregnancy, ________ levels surge - this increases the number of _______ receptors in the uterus - this increase in receptors enhances the responsiveness to _______ of the uterus, facilitating more effective __________ during labor

estrogen - oxytocin - oxytocin; contractions

- What prompts the pituitary gland to release oxytocin just before labor onset? - Is oxytocin produced exclusively by the mother?

- cervical stretching (increased pressure on the cervix) - no, also by the fetal pituitary gland

2 functions that oxytocin play during labor 1. stimulates ________ 2. situates ______ to release ________

1. uterus contractions 2. placenta; prostaglandins

- Ripening the cervix: ___________ help soften and thin out the cervix allowing the cervix to _______ (open wider) during labor for the baby to pass through - ___________ also stimulate more vigorous _________ of uterus

- prostaglandins; dilate - prostaglandins; contractions

Two factors responsible for inducing "TRUE" labor contractions 1. 2.

1. oxytocin 2. prostaglandins

Mechanism behind the positive feedback loop between uterine contractions and oxytocin during labor - the release of _______ triggering contraction, which then stimulate further ________ release, intensifying ________ until delivery occurs

- oxytocin; oxytocin; contractions

3 stages of labor 1. 2. 3.

1. Dilation stage 2. Expulsion stage (delivery of baby) 3. Placental stage (expulsion of placenta)

1. Dilation stage - __________ (thinning) of the cervix - __________ (widening) of the _________ ______ (reaching 10 cm) - this stage lasts from the onset of of rhythmic, strong contractions until the cervix is fully ________ - during this stage, fetal membranes _______ and the ______ _____ is discharged ("breaking of waters")

- effacement - dilation; cervical canal - dilated - rupture; amniotic fluid

2. Expulsion stage - it lasts from _____ cervical dilation until _____ of the infant - the baby is said to be _______ when the top of its head is visible - baby is pushed out through the birth canal 3. Placental stage - the _______ and other fetal ________ are expelled by uterine contractions

- FULL; birth - crowning - placenta; membranes

What is the maximum diameter that the cervix can dial to during labor?

10 cm

The placenta and other fetal membranes are expelled from the body after delivery in the ________ stage of labor, aided by uterine _______ and sometimes _______ interventions

placental; contractions; medical

Stage of puerperium, aka as the ________ period, begins immediately after childbirth and lasts for about ________, during which the body of the mother undergoes various physiological changes to recover from pregnancy and childbirth (_________ organs return to their original non pregnant condition)

postpartum; 6 weeks; reproductive

________ is the vaginal discharge containing blood, mucus, and uterine tissue that occurs after childbirth as the uterus sheds its lining (________ by self-digestion with _______ _______)

lochia; involution; lysosomal enzymes

Uterus undergoes _________ (shrinkage) in the weeks following labor because the _______ _______ ______ that make up the bulk of the uterus _______ and become more compact, reducing the overall size of the organ - it also involves the process called _______, which is the self-digestion of excess uterine tissue by ______ ______ produced by the very cells themselves

invocation; smooth muscle fibers; shorten - autolysis; lysosomal enzymes

_____________: this is the technical term for the milk-producing gland itself; consists of lobes, lobules (milk producing units), ducts, and supportive tissue ___________: mound of tissue overlying the pectorals major muscle

- mammary gland - breast

Name of the muscle situated beneath the breast?

pectorals major (make up the chest wall)

Breast size is determined by the amount of ______ ______ - the number of _______ _______ is relatively constant throughout life

adipose tissue - mammary glands

_______________: vital role in maintaining breast shape; attach breast to the dermis and to the fasica of the ________ ______ - prevents breast from _______ due to gravity

suspensory ligaments; pectoralis major - sagging

- _____________ ______: tiny tubes; transport produced breast milk from the lobules where it's made, all the way to the ________ - ___________ _____: may not be distinct anatomical structures, but rather ___________ widening of the _______ ______ near the nipple that occur during location to accommodate increased milk flow

- lactiferous ducts; nipple - lactiferous sinuses; temporary; lactiferous ducts

Mammary gland - _________: larger milk production sections within the breast; contain clusters of ________, which those contain milk-producing _______ (glands)

- lobe; lobules; alveoli

_________: in the mammary gland are, they are the sac-like structure where milk production actually happens, literally means "little cavity" in latin

alveoli

Cells present in the alveoli of the mammary gland - ___________: milk-secreting cuboidal cells - __________: ________ are surrounded by these (they are contractile cells)

- lactocytes - myoepitherlial cells; lactocytes

- which cells found in the alveoli of the mammary gland are responsible for milk production? _______ - which cells help with milk secretion from the alveoli? ______

- lactocytes - myoepithelial cells

After the lactocytes produce milk it is secreting into the _______, the central cavity of the alveolus, where they accumulate

LUMEN

__________ are tiny, bulb-like structures formed at the tips of the ductal tree within the mammary gland during ________

Terminal End Bulbs (TEB); puberty

TEBs - the sites where new _____ _____ sprout and elongate - they contain a cluster of _____ that actively divide and __________

- ductal branches - cells; differentiate

____________: are small bulges that appear on the terminal ducts at _________ and mark the beginning of the ________ formation process

alveolar buds; puberty; alveoli

Which hormone is crucial in facilitating ductal elongation, branching of existing ducts, and the emergence of alveolar buds at puberty?

estrogens (high levels at puberty)

During pregnancy what happens within the mammary gland - _____________: formation and development of alveoli - ___________ ________: transformation of epithelial cells within the alveoli to become specialized for milk production - these processes are stimulated by _________ (mostly) but also ________ and _______

- alveologenesis - lactogenic differentiation - progesterone; placental lactogens; prolactin

What happens within the mammary gland during lactation? - the ______ are fully matured and the _______ are able to synthesize and secrete milk components into the _____

- alveoli; lactocytes; lumen

If a woman discontinues breastfeeding her baby, does she retain alveoli throughout her life thereafter?

Yes, but while the alveoli remain, their functionality is limited after location stops - they will NOT continue to produce milk without hormonal cues triggered by pregnancy and breastfeeding - during involution, the alveoli shrink significantly

Do men contain mammary glands?

Yes, but they remain underdeveloped throughout life

Can a non-pregnant woman produce breast milk?

NO, milk production is primarily driven by hormonal changes that occur during pregnancy and lactation

Can a pregnant woman produce breast milk during the first trimester of pregnancy?

NO, milk production is primarily driven by hormones like progesterone and prolactin which sure significantly later in pregnancy - alveoli are still undergoing development during the first trimester

_________: the process by which mammals produce milk to feed their young - it comprises milk production by _________, secretion into the alveolar _____, transport form the alveoli to the nipple via the ________ _____, and expulsion from the nipple

lactation - lactocytes; lumen; lactiferous ducts

The primary trigger for prolactin and oxytocin release is the _______ _______ at the breast - the gland that secretes both prolactin and oxytocin= __________

baby's suckling - pituitary gland

- ___________: stimulates milk synthesis by mammary alveolar cells - ___________: stimulate contraction of the myoepithelial cells produces milk ejection

- prolactin - oxytocin

________ breast feeding is REQUIRED for continued milk production

CONTINUED

___________: thick, yellowish fluid produced by the mammary glands in the first few days (usually up to ___ days) after childbirth

colostrum; 4

- Colostrum contains more _______, _________, ________, and _______ than does true milk - True milk is produced around day ____ in response to suckling and has high ______ and ______ levels

- protein; immunoglobulins; vitamin A; minerals - 3; fat; lactose