Later Classical Liberalism (early-mid 19th Century)

Question 1

By the 1800s, what did countries like Britain and the USA look like?

Answer 1

looked very different to the societies surveyed by Locke and the Founding Fathers

Question 2

By the 1800s counties like Britain and the USA looked very different to the societies surveyed by Locke and the founding fathers- why?

Answer 2

They had become more industrialised; most individuals now worked and lived in an urban environment; individuals had a growing sense of class consciousness; and, as a result, there was growing interest in concepts like democracy and socialism.

Question 3

In such a changed environment, classical liberals faced a serious challenge, what was it?

Answer 3

if their core ideas were to remain relevant.

Question 4

What was the response that came for the core ideas of liberalism to remain relevant?

Answer 4

A response duly came, but it was far from uniform. The ideas of four ‘late classical’ liberals provide an indication of how variable the response was.

Question 5

Who was known as the father of utilitarian philosophy?

Answer 5

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)

Question 6

Who was known as the father of utilitarian philosophy?

Answer 6

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)

Question 7

What did the father of utilitarian philosophy develop?

Answer 7

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), known as the father of utilitarian philosophy, developed a supposedly scientific alternative to natural rights theory, based on the idea that each individual would seek to maximise their own ‘utility’ by maximising personal pleasure and minimising personal pain.

Question 8

What did Bentham acknowledge ?

Answer 8

Bentham also acknowledged that, in an industrialised society, this could produce more clashes between individuals than early classical liberals had envisaged.

Question 9

As a result of possible clashes what did Benthan suggest?

Answer 9

As a result, he suggested that the liberal state would need to be more proactive, using the algebraic formula of ‘the greatest happiness of the greatest number’ to inform legislation and government policy.

Question 10

In the process Bentham laid the foundations of

Answer 10

‘political science’ and provided liberalism with one of its earliest justifications for democracy: as Bentham observed, governments were more likely to follow the ‘greatest happiness of the greatest number’ if they were elected by and accountable to ‘the greatest number’ of voters.

Question 11

Who feared that individualism was threatened but the advent of socialism ?

Answer 11

Samuel Smiles (1812-1904)

Question 12

Samuel Smiles (1812-1904) book?

Answer 12

Samuel Smiles (1812-1904), fearing that individualism was threatened by the advent of socialism, with its related calls for more state provision, argued in his influential book Self Help (1859) that self-reliance was still perfectly feasible for most individuals, including members of the new working class.

Question 13

What did Smiles acknowledge?

Answer 13

Smiles acknowledged that industrialised societies made it harder for individuals to be self-reliant: an increasing number were faceless employees in a bulging factory system.

Question 14

Smiles argued that, in seeking to overcome the new obstacles…

Answer 14

individuals would merely be challenged more rigorously and, in the process, become more fully developed.

Question 15

Smiles argued that, in seeking to overcome the new obstacles…

Answer 15

individuals would merely be challenged more rigorously and, in the process, become more fully developed.

Question 16

Smiles infamous quote

Answer 16

If ‘self-help were usurped by state help’, Smiles argued,
‘human beings would remain stunted, their talents unknown, and their liberty squandered.

Question 17

Give a contemporary of Smiles

Answer 17

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

Question 18

What did Herbert Spencer acknowledge?

Answer 18

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), a contemporary of Smiles, acknowledged the importance of self-help and echoed Smiles’ contempt for more state intervention

Question 19

Where could we see Spenser questioning Smilies ?

Answer 19

in Man Versus the State (1884), Spencer questioned Smiles’ belief that all individuals could rise to the challenge of self-help, noting the presence of ‘the feeble, the feckless and the failing’ in many Victorian cities.

Question 20

Spenser feared that

Answer 20

Fearing that this
‘feeble’ minority could justify the extension of state power, and therefore (what he saw as) an erosion of the majority’s freedom, Spencer sought to apply the principles of ‘natural selection’, recently unveiled to science by Charles Darwin.

Question 21

‘social Darwinism’

Answer 21

In what became known as ‘social Darwinism’, Spencer restated the classical liberal belief in a minimal state and negative freedom, claiming that this would lead to ‘the survival of the fittest’ and the gradual elimination of those unable to enjoy the benefits of individualism.

Question 22

Outcome of social Darwinism

Answer 22

The eventual outcome would be a society where rational self-reliance was the norm and where individual freedom could thrive.

Question 23

Who were Bentham, Smiles and Spenser eclipsed by?

Answer 23

In terms of long-term importance, however, Bentham, Smiles and Spencer were eclipsed by John Stuart Mill. Mill’s contribution to philosophy in general was immense.

Question 24

Mills contribution to philosophy in general was…?

Answer 24

Immense

Question 25

What have some suggested about Mill’s ideas ?

Answer 25

some have suggested that Mill’s ideas represent a separate strand of liberalism, known as transitional liberalism or developmental individualism

Question 26

Mill’s contribution to liberalism and political thought was

Answer 26

crucial, given that it took place at a time — the mid-nineteenth century - when many liberals were struggling to work out how liberalism (with its stress upon individualism) could harness trends towards universal suffrage (with its capacity for what Mill himself termed ‘the tyranny of the majority’).

Question 27

Mill’s response to this dilemma would …

Answer 27

have a profound effect upon the way in which later liberals reconciled themselves to democratic governance.

Question 28

Anticipating universal suffrage, Mill updated Locke’s case for

Answer 28

representative government into a case for representative democracy.

Question 29

Under Mills model for representative govt into a case for representative democracy …

Answer 29

Under this model, the enlarged electorate would not make policy decisions themselves but elect liberally minded representatives to make decisions for them.

Question 30

Developmental individualism

Answer 30

This relates to the liberal philosophy of John Stuart Mill, who wished to focus on what individuals could become rather than what they had become. It explained Mill’s strong emphasis upon the value of formal education within a liberal society.

Question 31

Mills model

When making decisions, such representatives would not

Answer 31

simply side with the majority view, they would seek to aggregate the various opinions within society so as to produce the broad consent of all.

Question 32

Mills model

In putting forward this particular model of democracy

Answer 32

Mill also equipped later liberals to rebut alternative models — such as ‘direct’ democracy - which he claimed were much more conducive to the ‘tyranny of the majority’.

Question 33

Mills model

In putting forward this particular model of democracy

Answer 33

Mill also equipped later liberals to rebut alternative models — such as ‘direct’ democracy - which he claimed were much more conducive to the ‘tyranny of the majority’.

Question 34

What was Mill still concerned about?

Answer 34

Mill was still concerned,
however, that during the mid-
nineteenth century most would-be voters were ill-equipped to choose ‘intelligent’ representatives to act ‘rationally’ on their behalf.

Question 35

What was Mill still concerned about?

Answer 35

Mill was still concerned,
however, that during the mid-
nineteenth century most would-be voters were ill-equipped to choose ‘intelligent’ representatives to act ‘rationally’ on their behalf.

Question 36

Mills concern about voters during mid 19th century being ill equipped to chose intelligent representatives to act rationally let to what..?

Answer 36

With that in mind, Mill argued that universal suffrage must be preceded by universal education, hoping this would promote developmental individualism.

By this, Mill meant the advancement of individual potential, so as to produce a liberal consensus in society; this in turn would safeguard tolerance, reason and individualism.

Question 37

Mills concern about voters during mid 19th century being ill equipped to chose intelligent representatives to act rationally let to what..?

Answer 37

With that in mind, Mill argued that universal suffrage must be preceded by universal education, hoping this would promote developmental individualism.

By this, Mill meant the advancement of individual potential, so as to produce a liberal consensus in society; this in turn would safeguard tolerance, reason and individualism.

Question 38

Mean-whilst Mill decided that due to the concern about ill equipped individuals voting …?

Answer 38

Meanwhile, a vote would be withheld from the illiterate and unschooled, while those with a university education (like Mill) would receive more than one vote.

Until widespread education had been secured

Question 39

Once widespread education had been secured, what did Mill argue?

Answer 39

Mill argued, democracy could actually further liberal values - promoting, for example, political education and opportunities for enlightening debate.

Question 40

Mill argued that once widespread du had been secured, such a progressive society could allow what ?

Answer 40

a pleasing refinement of Bentham’s utilitarianism: ‘the greatest happiness of the greatest number’ could then be a calculation made by politicians and voters, thus encouraging ordinary citizens to consider and aggregate everyone’s interests, not just their own, when forming a political judgement.

Question 41

Despite Mill’s commitment to mass education..?

Answer 41

Mill remained vague about how it would be provided

Question 42

Critical thinking

As someone wedded to the classical liberal ideas of a minimal state and negative freedom, Mill was reluctant to…

Answer 42

countenance extensive state provision of schooling. But this key issue was one that his successors, the so-called modern liberals, were prepared to answer with more clarity and boldness — and not just in relation to education.

Question 43

What time era was the LATER CL period in ?

Answer 43

Early-mid 19th century