Geogrpahy Flashcards
internal deformation - distortion within a ? in the ?, the glacier becomes frozen to the ? surface, the sheer weight of the ? and influence of gravity cause individual ice ? to react to stress and melting and becoming more ?
material, winter, rocky, ice, crystals, elongated
what is bulldozing known as in glaciers?
the movement of glaciers which pushes material downhill
when does meltwater pour of the snout of some glaciers?
in the summer months
where does most deposition occur?
at the snout of the glacier
Glacial till - poorly sorted debris carried by the ? and then dumped when the ice ?, it comprises a large range of ? sizes and due to ? of water transport they tend to be quite ?
ice, melts, particle, lack, angular
what is our wash carried by and how is it different to glacial till?
it’s carried by melt water streams, and is different as it is more rounded and sorted - with finer material being deposited far away from the ice front
what’s a tarn?
a body of water formed by a glacier
characteristics of a Corrie - is in the ? course of a glacier, has a steep back ? and sides and usually contains a ?. it also has a raised ? at the front to keep the water of the ? inside
upper, wall, tarn, lip, tarn
what is a Corrie?
a deep depression found on the hillside, sometimes referred to as a cirque or cwm
what’s an arête?
a knife edged ridge found at the back of a Corrie or separating two glaciated valleys
what’s a pyramidal peak?
when 3 or more corried have formed and eroded the top of the mountain to form a single peak
how do glaciers form?
1. snowflakes fall and ? in a hollow in the ?
2. when snow falls more, the ? compresses the snow to form ? a firm type of ?
3. more weight is added so the firn turns into ?
4. ice looks ? because all the air is squeezed out under the ?
5. when the ice doesn’t ? the glacier gets ? and heavier and gravity forces it to move ? slowly downhill
6. glacier erodes the ? on either side and alters the ?
accumulate, mountainside,
weight, firn, snow, ice, blue, pressure,
melt, larger, very, valley, landscape
how does a Corrie form?
glacier erodes a hollow making it deeper, and there is a lot of freeze thaw weathering and plucking which leads to lots of abrasion which makes the hollow uneven and then post glacial period a jagged summit is left as well as well as lots of glacial till and scree slopes form freeze thaw weathering. the rock lip is less eroded since there was less thick ice to erode it
what is mass movement?
the downward movement or sliding of material under influence of gravity - once weakened by weathering can deliver loose materials to beaches and sea for erosion!!!
what are 4 examples of chemical weathering
carbonation, oxidation, hydration and hydrolysis
what is erosion?
the wearing away and breaking up of rock along the coast - involving movement
what is basal slip?
rapid movement in the summer when meltwater lubricates the glacier and allows it to slide downhill
what’s rotational slip?
when meltwater lubricates hollows up on The Valley, (can) be curved
2 characteristics of a glacial environment?
snow and ice covers most of the environment
constantly low temp, almost never above freezing
what are marine processes and what are the three marine processes
they are weathering processes that happen at the base of a cliff, and they are attrition, abrasion/corrosion and hydraulic action!!
what are two examples of mechanical weathering? (what happens with the less common example)
freeze thaw and salt crystallization - water evaporates leaving salt crystals which grow and put pressure on rocks causing flakes to break off
when does rockfall happen? when fragments of ? break away from cliff ? , this is called freeze ? weathering
rock, face, thaw
when does a landslide happen? after prolonged ? , blocks of ? slide downwards in a ? plane from a bedding of ?, however the sides retain their ? structure as they move as a larger ?
rainfall, rock, slide, rock, internal, mass
when does mudflow happen? when saturated ? and weak rock flow down a ? happens in steep ? when vegetation is ? and can’t hold soil after heavy? , eg : Lyme ?
soil, slope, slopes, sparse, rainfall, Regis
characteristics and plants of embryo and fore dunes
low growing with deep tap roots, alkaline soil, little organic matter, sand wort and sea couch
characteristics and plants of yellow dunes
less alkaline, long tap roots underground - rhizomes stabilise plants, red fescue and marram grass
characteristics and plants of grey dunes
some marram grass, better biodiversity and more organic matter with lichen and heather (and some marram grass)
characteristics and plants of dune stacks
lots of organic matter with rushes and reeds
characteristics and plants of heath and woodland
most organic matter, acidic soil, heather, buckthorn birch and oak
how does a sand dune form?
when sand heaped into mounds by the wind is blown against an obstacle
how are spits formed
when the prevailing wind blows at an angle to the coastline resulting in long shore drift, and as the spit grows it forms a hook and as waves can’t get passt this it created a sheltered area with mudflats and salt marshes
how do salt marshes develop?
by saltwater tolerant plants trapping material which allows it to expand and form new land and over time the area is colonised by animals and plants who have adapted to the salty conditions
how does a cave form
when joints (cracks) are widened by erosion to form a hole in the cliffface/rock which is called a cave
what is a stump?
a smaller stack with its head fallen in
how is a cliff formed? :
- land slopes ?, freeze ? weathering weakens rock
- base of ? starts to be ? by wave pounding ( ? action) and shingle hurled at the ? of the cliff (abrasion)
- with more ? more rock collects at the base of the ?, which is removed by ? waves and this leaves a ? - and because of this the section above cliff ? is unsupported making it more ?
- the notch is ? so the section is no longer ? and can’t hold so collapses into the ? forming a cliff
- as the ? retreats, the former cliff base forms a landform called a wave -? platform , and joints are enlarged by hydraulic action and ?
-down, thaw,
-cliff, eroded, hydraulic, base,
-erosion, cliff, destructive, notch, unsupported, precarious,
-enlarged, supported, sea,
-cliff, cut, abrasion
what is a discordant coastline
when geology alters between strata of hard and soft rock aligned at an angle
concordant coastline?
a coastline with the same type of rock along its length running parallel to coast
what is longshore drift?
when sediment is moved across the coastline and eventually deposited
3 steps to longshore drift :
- waves arrive head ? at coast, sediment moved up and ? beach with little lateral ?
- direction of waves ? due to prevailing ?
- waves approach beach at an ? , sediment moved along ? by longshore ?
- on, down, movement
- change, wind
- angle, coast/beach, drift
4 causes of uneven development (and examples)
physical - eg landlocked, historical - past colonies of British empire have struggled, economic - low life expectancy, agriculture - manufacturing
How much of export in NEEs do Japan India and china make up?
80%
Facts about tourism in Jamaica? (How many people employed etc)
200,000 people employed
2BN per year from tourism
Farm and hotel scheme when hotels provided 10 farmers with £25 M and then turned to 80 farmers and helped them out
Pros of intermediate technology
Easy to use by a community and relatively cheap
different types of top down development (larger scale development)
micro finance loans, investment, industrial development
What does the Gini coefficient demonstrate and example of what 0 means
The distribution of wealth - 0 means wealth is completely evenly distributed
DTM - demographic transition model -
1. High ? and death ?
2. ? birth rate and falling ? rate
3. birth rate ? and still falling death ?
4. low birth ? and ? rate - world’s
richest ?
5. death ? slightly higher than ? rate, eg:
- Birth rate, rate
- High, death
- Falling, rate
- rate, death, countries
- rate, birth, Germany
3 facts about Nigeria
- has had the highest GDP in Africa since 2014
- provides 2.7% of world oil - 12th biggest producer
- 5th largest contributor to UN’s peacekeeping mission
3 links for Nigerian
Ecowas - its HQ is in Abuja - to promote economic integration, Cen-Sad - also promotes integration, African Union - planning and peacekeeping
changes in Nigeria
less agriculture, more manufacturing - due to more investment from china (for infrastructure and drilling)
balanced services - industry agriculture and services
Poverty in Nigeria facts
- 50% - 87M live on less than $1.69 a week
- 19% of young people and 33% overall are unemployed
- highest % of aid is for healthcare
- decrease of sanitation - 37-33 from 1990-2019
- Only 54% attend school, and only 22% have safe water access (in comparison to 99% in uk)
How did Boko Haram affect development
Shows the tension between Christian south and Muslim north and the kidnappings put off potential investors
Aduwan health clinic - what does it do?
World bank gave it money to develop, deals with HIV and AIDs and helps infant mortality rate to immunize against polio and educate about it
Context and history of Nigeria
- Got independence from British Empire in 1960
- Civil war of Biafra 1967-1970 - made Nigeria politically unstable till 1999
- has a strong football team, and good music, Nollywood - second biggest film industry in world - also made black panther
Difference between northern and southern Nigeria
Northern - semi desert, southern - a mix of rainforest and crops, but can’t keep pets or cattle due to tsetse fly
Bodo oil spill info
560,000 barrels of oil spilt, devastated lives of local ogeni people and Bodo people - eg fishing industry. Got 46.8M paid back - over 3000 per person.
How many people do shell employ directly and indirectly
6000 and 20000
Unilever facts?
Employed around 1500 people, wants to grow the market and work with locals, 2nd best place to work in Nigeria in 2014
Why are doctors moving away in Nigeria?
Not enough doctors, can’t give all their patients medical care, bad pay and they’re overworked
uk Economy Timeline?
1. 1945-79?
2. 1979-2010?
3. 2010- now?
- government supported declining industries
- privatization, selling businesses to shareholders
- ‘rebalance economy’, reduce dependent on service sector eg finance sector, and make access to loans for small businesses easier as well as improving transport
negative changes in uk?
- higher inequality
- less manufacturing due to robots and production in LIC meaning jobs are outsourced
- Imports from china
- agriculture decreased by 1.1% between 2010 and 2020
Positive changes in UK
- More foreign investment, new ideas tech and jobs
- specialization in high quality manufacturing and tech - like info tech
Torr Quarry info
- 1 of 8 quarries in Mendip hills
- 5M tonnes of stone a year
- 100 directly employed
- boosts the local economy by £15M per year
-uses limestone for aggregate on roads
Pros of Torr Quarry
- removed harmful gases from power stations by desulphurisation
- 60 acres of land landscaped to blend in
- 2010 - quarry deepened instead of widened
Cons of Torr Quarry?
- noise pollution
- unsightly to walkers and tourists
- habitat and agricultural land is damaged
What is a science park
Single Site, a group of scientific and technical knowledge based businesses
what is a business park?
area of land open for expansion occupied by a cluster of businesses usually in the outskirts of
connections to cobalt business park?
A1 and A19 roads, local airport and lots of accommodation and green space
Cambridge Science park info
- Founded by Trinity College in 1970
- Astra zeneca and Microsoft
- 61% of companies originated in Cambridge
- contributed £37Bn to Cambridges annual economy
- lots of green space and low density building
- connections to places with m11 and stansted airport
Cons of Cambridge science park.
Very expensive housing, and there’s lots of congestion due to air and rail
Changes in tertiary, secondary, and primary sectors from 1800-2006
Tertiary - 10%-74%
Secondary - stayed at 15%
Primary - 75% - 2%
Why are there changes in the uk?
Globalization, lack of investment, Urbanisation and deindustrialisation
Why are there changes in the uk?
Globalization, lack of investment, Urbanisation and deindustrialisation
what has happened to the service sector since 1948 (and 1970)
was 46% in 1948 but now 79%. over 2M people employed. financial - also a part of it makes up 10% of UK’s gdp eg teachers and doctors
Uk connections - commonwealth
Made up of 56 countries (old colonies of UK), didn’t want King Charles as new head. good for uk as can trade with rich and support poor countries. also more cultural and educational resources like people being able to learn English etc
What is the arctic fiber project
1500km long, connects uk with Japan and other parts of Asia and better telecommunications
Tech industry in uk?
1.3M people in IT, research contributes 3Bn to economy, employs over 60,000 highly skilled workers, eg British Antarctic Survey with 500 people linked to Cambridge
What’s happening in South Cambridgeshire and the positives of this?
- 150,000 increasing migrants from parts of UK and Eastern Europe
Pros: - Can use farmland from construction - creating jobs
- green belt prevents less building meaning less population growth and preservation of rural areas
Negatives of south Cambridgeshire
- less agricultural employment
- less younger people as high house prices
- lots of pressure to allow building on green belt due to high demands
- 80% car ownership leads to more traffic and congestion
- high demand for petrol
Pros of EU for UK
- passport benefits
- EU gives UK backing and influence if they adhere to people’s rules
- good trade and investment
- cat makers can export vehicles free of tax to parts of Europe
Pros of Brexit
- can reseestablish as an independent country
- immediate cost saving as no contribution to EU’s budget
- can negotiate own deals with powerful countries
What’s happening in outer Hebrides
- Older population increasing from 2,800-3,500
- Population has decreased from 46,000 in 1901 to 27,500 now
- younger and working population have decreased (3200 to 2900 in 2004- 2014 )
- 27% increase in visitors from 2007-2014
- can’t maintain economy and services even with support from gov so schools and post offices are closing
Difference between north and south
- Uk originally grew in north till Industrial Revolution
- from 1970s, as there is less industrial and engineering people move to south for better jobs
- north is mainly hills and mountainous regions
What’s an assisted area
Places uk gov identified that would benefit from additional help to secure business investment
What’s an LEP
Local enterprise partnership - voluntary partnerships between businesses and authorities
Positives of LEPs?
Creates jobs, (increased income tax which) boosts local economy, reduces development gap and allows services and businesses to expand
Negatives of LEPs?
- businesses can take advantage and then leave
- Locals may be critical
- some investments like mineral extraction don’t benefit locals
Lancashire LEP info
- 62M investment to give 97% of region super fast broadband
- creates 50,000 new jobs by 2023 and promotes new businesses
- £20M if transport improvement
Why was Lancashire LEP created
As it was hit hard by deindustrialisation due to a past in manufacturing and engineering
How are roads being improved in UK
A303 superhighway - improved main route to SW and turns all roads to dual carriageway
A303 superhighway pros and cons
Pros : Provides 1000s of jobs, reduces congestion, quicker goods and services transport
Cons : takes a while - 15 years, need to consider people’s jobs afterwards, costs 2 billion
Liverpool 2 Info
Improved capacity of Liverpool port by 1.5M containers a year
Costs 400M
Creates over 5000 new jobs
Makes ports more sustainable as reduced CO2 emissions due to boat freight travel
Pros and cons of cross rail improvement
19Bn new railway linking Heathrow and reading to Shen field and abbey
Pros : host 200M people per year, brings 1.5M more people within 45 mins of central London, 1500 per train
Cons: expensive, disruption of other services during building
Heathrow expansion info and pros
- 19Bn expansion of new runway, diverting M25 under a tunnel and make airport bigger
Pros:
77,000 new jobs, less congestion, boosts regional economy by £61 billion
Cons of Heathrow expansion
Noise pollution, have to divert rivers and demolish 100s of homes
Four types of transportation?!
Suspension, saltation, traction and solution
Transportation order(big to small) and meaning
Traction - large pebbles rolled along the seabed
Saltation - ‘hopping’ if possible particles too heavy to suspend
- Suspension - small particles suspended in the water
- Solution - dissolved chemicals transported
Longshore drift steps
- Waves arrive head on at coast so sediment moved up and down beach
- The wave fronts are driven by prevailing wind
- This changes the direction of the wave fronts, so waves approach beach at an angle
- Sediment is moved along the beach by longshore drift
What are faults
Lines of weakness caused by enormous tectonic pressure
How is a ribbon lake formed
The glacier eroded valley floor more than others (due to the varying strength of bedrock) or the thinner and thicker ice of the glacier. lakes then form from the meltwater
how is a u shaped valley formed
A glacier moves down a v shaped valley and eroded it making it deeper with the use of plucking
Hanging valleys how are they formed?
Hanging valleys are created where ? valleys meet the main ? valley. The glaciers in the smaller ? were not so ?, so they didn’t erode such deep ?. This means the ? valleys are left ? above the ? of the main valley.
smaller, glaciated, valley, powerful, valleys, smaller, hanging, floor
what is a discordant coastline and an example?
when geology alternates between strata of hard and soft rock facing the sea, eg bays or headlands
what is a concordant coastline and an example?
a coastline with the same type of rock running parallel to the coast, eg: a cove
What is the coriolis effect
When due to air moving faster at equator and slower towards the poles, air appears to move in a curved line towards the poles
What is eccentricity and how often does it happen
every 100,000 years, when the earths shape changes from spherical to oval - determining how close the earth is to the sun
What is obliquity(tilt) and how often does it happen
The degrees at which the earth is facing the sun - the wider the angle, the more ice melts in the summer, happens every 41,000 years. also earth spinning on access causes night and day!
What is precession and how often does it happen?
The direction of earths axis spinning, accounts for places like Norway having very long nights and days, happens every 26,000 years
3 natural causes of climate change
Sunspots - makes some areas warmer but doesn’t directly impact
Milankovich cycle (eccentricity, tilt and precession)
Volcanic eruptions
how does volcanic activity decrease and increase temp
- releases sulphur dioxide which reacts with water vapour to make sulphuric acid droplets which act like tiny mirrors and reflect the suns rays decreasing temp
- releases CO2 which contributed to climate change
what’s a sunspot
dark patches that appear on surface of sun and makes some areas warmer
Mount Pinatubo case study what happened and why was it surprising?
- 1991 eruption, scientists thought it was extinct as it hadn’t erupted for 500 years
- 7.8 scale earthquake
- 10km cubed or material was ejected and 15 tonnes of SO2 released
- SO2 reacts with water vapour to form sulphuric acid droplets - reflect suns rays and decreased mean global temp by 1 degree for 2 years
when and how are spits formed
they are formed where the prevailing winds blow at an angle to the coastline, resulting in longshore drift. as it grows, it develops a hook which waves can’t get past - creating a sheltered area with mudflats and salt marshes
how are sand dunes developed?
when wind heaps sand into mounds when blown against an obstacle
how does a salt marsh develop?
saltwater tolerant ? traps materials which allows new ? marsh to expand and form new ?. as time progresses, this ? Area will be ? by plants and ? who have adapted to the ? conditions
plants, salt, land, new, colonised, animals, salty
how does a cave form?
joints widen
how does an arch form?
two caves are eroded?
how does a stack form?
the top of the arch caves in leaving a stack
how does a stump form?
a smaller stack head falls in
what happens in sheltered estuaries?
waves lose energy in bays, spits, bars and deposit sediment there
what do groynes do? (pros and cons)
stop movement of sediment, but need regular maintenance and can impede walking on the beach
what does a sea wall do?
reduces wave energy with a curved face
pros and cons of sea walls
pros: good security, long lasting, don’t stop sediment movement
cons : cost £5,000 per linear m, unsightly, restricts access to beach
pros and cons of rock armour
pros made of 1000s of tonnes of huge boulders of granite and is cheap and strong,
cons - difficult to access, obtrusive and ugly
pros and cons of gabions
pros - reduces erosive and energy (wave) power, relatively cheap - £110 per m, and can blend in
cons - need regular maintenance, and birds feet can be damaged
what is beach nourishment? and pros and cons
replacing the sand in the beach
pros - more beach use and natural
cons - restricts beach access, resentment from locals
beach reprofiling definition - pros and cons?
reshaping of beach and moving of shingle up to beach using bulldozers
pros - relatively cheap (£30M over 25 years)
cons - unattractive, deters tourists
difference between soft and hard engineering
more sustainable and less expensive that uses the natural environment whereas hard engineering is more expensive and use artificial structures to protect the coastline
info of Lyme regis
small town on south coast of England, Jurassic coast. lots of tourism due to fossils - 4,000 to 15,000 tourists in summer
why does Lyme Regis need protection?
most of the town is build on unstable cliffs and coastline which is eroded more rapidly than any in Europe
4 (only technically 3) phases of protection for Lyme Regis
- New sea wall, promenade and emergency project - drilling and nailing cliffs
- £22M - sand and shingle beach, extension of rock armory and sea front
- (no stage 3)
- £19.5M - a new sea walk (390m), nailing piling and drainage to protect 480 homes
pros and cons of Lyme Regis?
Pros - better access to beach for tourists, very popular with tourists new promenade, locals like new sand and shingle beach
Cons - less tourists for local shops (decreased money), no parking for locals, noise and visual pollution for tourists
Keyhaven saltmarsh information?
South coast, in Hampshire, low energy environment due to hurst castle spit, has a diverse range of wildlife, range of marine animals and salt tolerant vegetation which harbours scientific interest
pros and cons of keyhaven saltmarsh?
pros
- cordgrass reduces waters energy - natural defence
- long tap roots stabilise plants making shore more stable
- levels of mudflats rise - less harsh conditions
cons
- are retreating by 6m per year
- have been eroded by tourists
- more effective’s way like sea wall built in 1980s
Medmerry managed retreat info?
- south coast, Chichester, Sussex
- allowed sea to breach current defenses and flood previously protected land
- sea wall is too expensive to repair, so building embankments to protect roads, farmland and settlements
cons of medmerry managed retreat
- £28M instead of £200,000 per year to realign shingle beach
- lots of farmland lost, including habitats eg marsh harriers
- long term plan for north Norfolk could destroy 6 villages
pros of medmerry managed retreat
- improves coastal stability, eg by creating salt marshes
- cheaper in long term
- creates new intertidal habitats
What’s the ‘Do nothing’ approach?
leave low value farmland/ moorland alone and don’t intervene. scientists then monitor these stretches for human activity, mass movement and marine processes
pros and cons of the ‘Do Nothing’ approach?
pros
- conserves natural environment
- takes pressure off areas in the coast
cons
- can’t use on high value land
- can’t use on high biodiversity/ areas with important ecosystems
What are the 5 types of sand dunes
- Embryo and fore
- Yellow
- Grey
- Dune stack
- Heath/ woodland
Characteristics of embryo and fore dunes?
Low growing plants with deep tap roots, eg: sandwort, sea couch and sea rocket. It is alkaline and with very little organic matter
Characteristics of yellow dunes?
Plants with long tap roots - ragwort, marram grass and red fescue. These plants are stabiliser by underground rhizomes. It is less alkaline.
Characteristics of grey sand dunes?
Plants include lichen, heather, and SOME marram grass, there is also high species diversity
Characteristics of a dune stack?
Main plants are rushes and reeds, with quite a bit of organic matter
Characteristics of heath/woodland dunes?
Plants and trees include heather, buckthorn, birch and oak. Acidic soil, with the most organic matter
Traffic congestion management program - lake disyrict
‘Go lakes travel plan’ - (2011-2015) aimed to improve ways of tourist travel, with an integrated ticket system, and it also ensures local communities and residents benefit from programme
Footpath management program - Lake District
‘Fix the fells’ which helps to maintain and reload mountain paths using stones and sheep fleece to create a stable surface for footpaths. Helps 75M people
What are the impacts of tourism in Lake District?
- high house prices
- 80% travel by car
- new businesses like adventure tourism provide jobs for locals
Why do people visit Lake District?
- Adventure activities like Windermere lake, or Scafel Pike
- home of Beatrix potter
- Wordsworth was inspired by Muncaster castle
- also very scenic towns, villages and its a national trust site!
What is forestry used for and an example?
Large plantations of conifer trees left to grow in acidic soils for 20-30 years. Used for industrial scale logging in Lochlomad and in the Cairngorms which promotes spread of pine forest (natural woodland which is 16% of park)
Example and cons of tourism in Lake District
Aviemore - mountain biking and wildlife park for tourists
Cons - tourists can destroy land eg littering, develops land, creates tension with farmers and cause problems with locals due to second homes increasing house prices
Pros and cons of farming in Lake District?
Pros:
Soils are thin and acidic which are perfect for grazing
Can grow crops on lower fields and raise sheep
Cons
Restricted access to farm sites for tourists (which can cause agitation)
Conservationists worry sheep take away too much of the areas vegetation
Quarrying project in lake district pros and cons?
Controversial proposal to supply aggregate from Dalwinnie quarry to Cairngorms national park in order build an extension for an A9 road.
However this is negative as it could damage environment and tourism - polluting land and rivers giving less habitats and less tourist interest
why does the uk have such extreme weather?
as there are lots of different winds - snow from the arctic, winter weather from the east, sunny weather from the south and Atlantic brings storms
what are different factor examples in climate disasters?
- medical facilities
- resources and finance
- population density
- depth of focus
What is the albedo effect?
reflectivity of earths surface - very high in the polar regions!!
what happens at the polar cell - global atmospheric model?
cold dense air sinks at high latitudes and moves to low latitudes - air warms and rises as it moves closer to equator to cause low pressure
what happens at the Ferrell cell - global atmospheric model?
Between polar and Hadley cells - cooler air from the polar meets warmer air from the Hadley - causing lower pressure and therefore unsettled weather - like in UK
what happens at the Hadley cell - global atmospheric model?
Largest cell - air rises to high altitudes creating a high pressure. This creates warm, low precipitation weather creating the conditions for the majority of the earths deserts
Is the equator high or low latitude?
low - 0 degrees
are the poles high or low latitude?
high - 90 degrees north and south
what is the Jetstream?
a narrow band of air currents!!!
what is the Coriolis effect?
when air moves faster at the equator as the earth is wider there - so air appears to move in a curved line, as it’s moving from a fast region to a slower region!
what is a hazard risk?
the probability of a hazard occurring and creating loss of life, damage or economic loss
what are the different types of hazard risk
atmospheric (meteorological- like heating and movement of air), geological, (tectonic plates) hydrological, and biological!!
Hurricane Irene info
Large and destructive cyclone, caused $14.2 Bn damage, and they used buoys, satellites, and Doppler radars to detect!!
how to reduce effects of climate change?
use radar systems, buoys, satellites, data and analysis and historic records
what are natural hazards?
Natural events that can threaten livelihood etc
difference between primary and secondary effects
primary happen as a direct effect of a natural hazard, whereas secondary effects are caused by primary effects
how many different layers are there of the earth and what are they called?
4:
- inner core
- outer core
- mantle
- crust
Details of inner core?
solid, 5,500 degrees
Details of outer core?
5000 - 4000 degrees, liquid
Details of mantle?
thickest layer - 2960km, 500-900 degrees
Two types of earths crust?
Continental and oceanic
Two types of earths crust?
Continental and oceanic
Difference between oceanic and continental crust?
Oceanic - dense and can sink
Continental - light and can’t sink!
what happens once air has been heated and it condenses in a tropical storm?
- releases power from ? heat energy, clouds can grow to ? -15km ?
- ? effect matures storm and currents of air ? in the centre of the ? - which has a lower ? than rest of the storm (creating the ?)
- smaller ? join to become a spinning ?
- storm gathers ? when it is carried by ? winds across the ocean
- when the ? meets land, the energy is cut ? and so ? with land slows it ?
- latent, 12, Hugh
- coriolis, spin, storm, pressure, eye of the storm
- thunderclouds, storm
- strength, prevailing
- storm, off, friction
what is needed for tropical storms?
- large still ocean area with a temp above 26.5 degrees
- air is heated and as it condenses large clouds form 10km in troposphere
at what point does a storm officially becomes a tropical storm?
when surface winds reach 120 kph!
3 types of evidence for climate change
- ice cores (and melting glaciers)
- deep ocean sediments
- changes to migration (eg birds migrate 2 days earlier per decade), and trees and flowers flowering earlier
Problems with sea level rising?
- important farmland and coasts (eg Bangladesh and Vietnam and India) could be flooded
- fresh water supplies contaminated
Evidence and predictions of sea level rising?
- by 2100, levels should be 0.3-1.1m above sea level
- risen by 21 cm since 1990, 7.5 of this since 1993
what does more energy in the atmosphere mean for storms and weather?
More storms, leading to floods in dry regions and heatwaves in wet ones
impacts of climate change (without examples)
crops and forestry
Impacts of climate change (with examples)
- health : pollution and heat cramps
- plants and animals - 25% could be extinct in 100 years if temp increases
- energy : can’t produce hydropower due to lack of water
- forestry : lots of wildfires (burns 4 times as much land), US corn production should decrease by 10-30% if temp increased by 3.6 F
how much has the total rainfall from very wet days increased by since 1900
17%
jet stream info
- stronger the temperature gradient, the stronger the jet
- it arises due to the contrast between cold polar air and warm tropical air
- flows from h to l pressure
- brings frequent low pressure systems to some regions eg uk
what happens if warm air moves further N than usual in the Jetstream?
changes prevailing (winds) West and East pattern, so jet stream Buckels - causing depressions of cold and snowy conditions in some places
what is the quaternary period
started 2.6M years ago to now
we are in an interglacial period that normally lasts around 10,000 years
info about enhanced greenhouse effect
- has a thicker layer of greenhouse gases
- methane and carbon dioxide molecules crash into one another
- is anthropogenic (induced by humans)
3 different changes in agriculture
- lost more pests
- better water management
- agroforestry
better water management in Pakistan?
- drip and sprinkler systems - water 23 hectares , and improve 12,000 waterways
drought impacts and adaptations to it?
- in S Asia rice production dropped by 10%
- need drought tolerant crops like olives
- drought resistant maize seeds can produce 1300 more pounds if maize!
agroforestry
- integrates farms into natural ecosystems
- taking advantage of natural foods : cocoa, açaí and mushroom
- taking up a new forest friendly hobby of bee keeping!!!!
Ways of protecting against Earthquakes?
- in LICs bamboo is shock resistant and used to protect
- shatter resistant glass
- stronger foundations
- automatic shutter on outside of windows
- birdcage interlocking frame
Ways of monitoring Earthquakes?
- using a seismometer - measure the strength of earthquakes/ seismic activity
- laser beams detect plate movement
- levels of radon gas increasing means a higher risk of an earthquake
Why can’t you make accurate predictions for earthquakes
As they don’t happen at particular points, and can happen anywhere along a plate boundary
Ways of monitoring volcanoes?
- Seismometers - measure earthquakes near an eruption
- Looking at history of eruptions to determine a pattern
- If temp increases it may be due to magma rising
Ways of protecting against volcanoes? (and why it’s difficult)
Very difficult - sue to building not able to be designed to withstand lava flows and weight of debris
- can use earth embankments and explosives to divert lava flow
Ways of planning for volcanoes?
- hazard maps for worlds most dangerous volcanoes can show areas most likely to be affected
- evacuation plan to educate people, as well as leaflets, about the volcano info and to take shelter etc!
Planning for earthquakes?
Emergency drills are organised by local governments throughout the country, eg: include ducking under desks or evacuation
Schools also do regular ‘back to school’ evacuation drills
Another way to monitor a volcano?
By using robots (called spiders) to monitor gases escaping - usually sulphur dioxide
Structure of a tropical storm right to left 1-5
- Slight wind, no precipitation, and high temp (30 degrees)
- Light precipitation, high temp (30 degrees), moderate wind
- Heavy precipitation, increasing wind speeds, drop in temp (26 degrees)
- Torrential precipitation - thunder and lightning, strong winds (up to 120 kph), a further drop in temp (24 degrees)
- (The eye of the storm - 20-40 miles across) sudden rise in temp - 32 degrees, drop in wind speed, all precipitation stops
Nepal earthquake info
- 15 km depth of focus
- 80km from Nepals capital Kathmandu
- 7.9 on richter
- 9,000 dead, 20,000 injured, 3M left homeless, 50% of shops destroyed
- avalanches led to deaths of 19 people on Mt Everest (most deaths from one incident)
- $5Bn costs
- 1.4M needed food water and shelter afterwards
Japan earthquake info
- near Fukushima power plant
- cost $235Bn
- tsunami killed 18,000 and left 500,000 homeless with 10m high waves
- 8.9 on Richter scale
- 30km deep focus
- many people had to live in temporary shelters for months with many without water and sanitation
- 1.5M had no water
Japan earthquake immediate and long term response?
Immediate
- 100,000 members of Japan defence force
- 500,000 evacuated before tsunami struck
- roads and railways restored
Long term
- over $150Bn for reconstruction budget
- improved tsunami warning system (in 2013)
- 30,000 units of temporary housing planned to be built by 2020
Nepal earthquake immediate and long term response?
Immediate:
- International search and medical aid from UK and India (including SARAID)
- world vision international proceed emergency food kits for 8,000 people and shelter materials for 20,000 families
- Red Cross set up field hospitlas - with half a million tents
Long term
- By end of 2015, most roads and damage from landslide had been restored, so tourists could return to Mt Everest
- 212,000 of 335,700 houses had been built
- UNESCO is working with government to rebuild 700 damaged temples, palaces and museums
Which countries did Cyclone Idai effect and what were the wind speed and precipitation?
Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe - 115mph winds and 150mm of rain in 24 hours
Effects of Cyclone Idai?
- 843 people died (over 180 from a landslide in Zimbabwe)
- 1M acres of farmland and a years worth of crops were destroyed
- cost countries more than $2Bn
- had to initiate rescue missions to rescue people from roofs etc
- 90% of Beira devastated/destroyed
- over 1400 cholera cases
Short responses of cyclone idai?
Short term
- South African air force and Indian army helped rescue many people due to having a ship in the area
- Beira received 900,000 oral doses of cholera vaccines two weeks after disaster
- $18.3M from international donors - disaster fund for Mozambique gov
Long term response of Cyclone Idai?
- using ‘OpenStreetMap’, 1000s of volunteers crafted maps of affected areas - already mapped 200,000 building and 17,000km of roads
- UN appealed for $282M to help fund emergency assistance
- Mozambique announced they would help to rebuild education, health, energy etc sectors and those who were affected!
in what direction does the Coriolis effect make storms travel
in the southern they move clockwise and in the northern they move anticlockwise
what is an estuary and some characteristics
When the river meets the sea, has salt marshes and mudflats
how can physical factors affect flood risk - explain - how to answer
Say how it floods in the first place, eg : depressions and heavy rain
Things that increase flood risk are steep slopes with high run off and flat relief which are more liable to flood
Things that decrease are saltmarsh es etc
how can physical factors affect flood risk - explain - how to answer
Say how it floods in the first place, eg : depressions and heavy rain
Things that increase flood risk are steep slopes with high run off and flat relief which are more liable to flood
Things that decrease are saltmarsh es etc
where do spits form?
Sharp bends in a coastline and winds can curve the end turning it into a hook
what can longshore drift also cause
a spit to grow right across a bay, trapping a freshwater lake or lagoon in it due to the second river source
