Biology 2 - Infection And Response Flashcards
‘A breakdown in the cellular control mechanism that limits cell division’ - what is this the definition for
Cancer
Cancer - cells that ? be stable begin to ? forming a tumour that divides continuously
should, divide
What happens with a benign tumour?
There is a growth of abnormal cells - usually contained in one area and can grow very large
What is a good thing about a benign tumour
They don’t destroy surrounding tissue or invade other parts of the body
Benign ? can ? tissues preventing normal ? flow or nerve function
tumours, compress, blood
What can a malignant tumour cause
Cancer
Malignant tumours ? surrounding tissue and their ? can break ? and spread through ? or lymph into other sites where they ? secondary ?, malignant ? invade surrounding ? and ? normal cells
destroy, cells, away, blood, form, tumours , tumours , tissues, kill
What are the two types of treatment for cancer
Radiotherapy and chemotherapy
What two things does chemotherapy do
use chemicals to stop cancer cells dividing or cause them to self destruct
What does radiotherapy use and do to treat cancer
using targeted doses of radiation, cancer cells are destroyed - this stops cancer cells dividing
3 noticeable signs meaning there could be plant disease
Spots on leaves, stunted growth, discoloration
What are the symptoms of an aphid (green fly) infestation
Mottled or yellow leaves, decreased growth rate, wilting, low yield and death
Problems with aphid (green fly) infestation :
-Feed on ? sap, reducing the turgar ?, so the plant ?
-Release a ? honey dew that encourages ? growth
-Any pathogens in the ? of the aphid is injected into the ?
-Holes left from ? feeding can allow secondary ? in
-Honeydew encourages ants and other ? into the ?
-phloem, pressure, wilts
-sticky, mould
-saliva, plant
-aphid, protists/pathogens
-animals, plant
What non pesticide control can be used to control aphid infestation (2 examples)
-Squash aphid colonies
-Encourage natural aphid predators, eg: ladybugs
What pesticide control can be used for aphid infestation?
Insecticide
What can magnesium deficiency cause in plants
discoloration of leaves (yellow leaves) and stunted growth
what can nitrate deficiency cause and why?
stunted growth, because nitrate is needed to make amino acids which is used in photosynthesis to help the plant grow. Nitrates then help make hydrogen which helps makes amino acids and therefore proteins which is needed for healthy growth!
what does lack of chlorophyll being made due to a magnesium deficiency cause
the leaves turn yellow because of the lack of chlorophyll and because of that less photosynthesis takes place so less glucose made, less amino acids and less protein for growth leading to stunted growth
3 ways to identify what disease a plant has
- reference to a Garden manual or website
- taking the infected plant to a lab to identify the pathogen present
- using testing kits containing monoclonal antibodies
Physical plant defence mechanisms:
Cellulose cell walls
Tough waxy cuticle
Layers of dead cells around stem (eg bark) which fall off
Chemical plant defence mechanisms
Poisons to deter herbivores
Antibacterial chemicals
Mechanical adaptations for plant defence
Leaves which droop of curl when touched
Thorns and hair to deter animals
Mimicry to trick animals
how many lines of defence are there against diseases?
3
what does the first line of defence do and is it specific or non specific?
prevent pathogens from entering the body, non specific
what are bacterial cell walls made of?
peptidoglycan
What happens in the second line of defence and is it specific or non specific?
phagocytosis - when phagocytes engulf pathogens, it is non specific
what does hydrolytic mean?
water bursting - bursts
what does exocytosis
process outside the cell
what does endocytosis mean?
it’s a process within the cell
what happens in phagocytosis?
white blood cell - phagocyte - approaches the virus/ pathogen,
then it surrounds the pathogen,
the phagocyte engulfs the pathogen and absorbs it - breaking down the pathogen/virus into pieces - now the phagocyte is ready to begin again
what is a non communicable disease?
a long term illness based on behavioral, environmental , physiological and genetic factors
negative effects of diet - overeating/eating ? foods can lead to obesity
can lead to type ? diabetes, higher ? pressure and heart ? , however a pro is regular ? reduces cholesterol - minimizing the risk of ? heart disease
unhealthy, 2, blood, disease, exercise, coronary
negatives of alcohol
- can get a diseased ? from ? drinking
-can get cirrhosis that destroys ? tissue
- can increase risk of liver ?
- heavy ? consumptions can cause part of the brain to soften, making it no ? function
-can cause lots of diseases - mental ?, strokes, motorneuron ?
liver, heavy, liver, cancer, alcohol, longer, disorders, disease
negatives of smoking-
carbon ? is in ? which reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of ? - making smokers out of ?
- tar increases risk of developing ? in the respiratory ?
- if a woman smokes in pregnancy can drastically harm the ? possibly leading to low birthweight or even ?
- tar breaks down structure of ? cause chronic obstructive ? disease
- carcinogen is in ?
monoxide, cigarettes, blood, breath, cancer, system, foetus, stillborns, alveoli, pulmonary - COPD
what happens in the third line of defence and is it specific or non specific? - lymphocytes produce ? to counteract (?) the toxins, making them ? , antitoxins are ? to particular toxins - making lymphocytes ?
antitoxins, neutralize, safe, specific, specific
what do lymphocytes bind to?
specific antigens
what is a catabolic reaction
a breakdown reaction
what is an anabolic reaction?
a synthesis reaction - builds things
what is metabolism
the sum of all the chemical reactions that happen in a living organism
what is good health?
complete physical and mental well being
why may being overweight increase the risk of a stroke
inflammation in the body caused by excess fatty tissue leads to less blood flow and risk of blockage increasing risk of a stroke
what is a causal risk factor of cardiovascular disease?
poor diet, smoking and no exercise
what is a causal risk factor of type 2 diabetes?
obesity
what is a causal risk factor of liver and brain damage
alcohol
what is a causal risk factor of lung disease and cancer
smoking
what is a causal risk factor of low birth weight and premature birth?
smoking
what is a causal risk factor of abnormal fötal brain development
alcohol
what is a causal risk factor of cancer
carcinogens and radiation
what type of pathogen causes smallpox?
virus
how did Edward Jenner create the cure for smallpox?
noticed people who’d had cowpox were unaffected by smallpox - gave people a small sample cowpox from pus and imputted it through scratches in the arm
what is a memory cell?
a long lasting immunity cell
phagocytosis - 4 steps :
1. phagocytes leave the ? through the capillary walls and enter ? that is being attacked by the ?
2. The cell ? and the cytoplasm of the ? surrounds the pathogen
3. The ? is engulfed by phagocytosis - is a specialized type of ? ( meaning in cell process)
4. the pathogen is then digested by ? enzymes - ? substances are absorbed and waste ? are released via exocytosis
blood, tissue, pathogen, membrane, phagocyte, pathogen, endocytosis, hydrolytic, useful, substances
what 3 things do antibodies do?
-attach to antigens preventing them from entering cells
- group pathogens togther to be engulfed more easily by phagocytes
- cell lysis - pathogens burst as complement protein causes it to
what is a bacterium’s cell wall made of?
peptidoglycan
what do bacteria produce?
toxins that damage cells and tissues
are bacteria prokaryotes or eukaryotic?
prokaryotic
parts of bacteria include..?
no nucleus, no mitochondria - but have a tail called a flagellum, have a free floating DNA in the cytoplasm
3 key facts about virus composure?
are non living, consist of genetic material and an ever evolving protein coat, much smaller than bacteria - eukaryotic
how do viruses reproduce?
using host DNA within host cells
why can viruses be so dangerous??
once within a cell they can make thousands of copies of themselves until the cell bursts open
two types of virus
Adenovirus, and Bacteriophage
what does a bacteriophage do?
destroys bacteria - could solve antibiotic resistance
protists -
? celled organisms
can be parasitic - means they live on or ? another ? causing harm
often ? within the blood ,
typical ? are chills and fever
eg : malaria
single, in, organism, reproduce, symptoms
how long does it take for the body to destroy a pathogen for the first time?
2-3 weeks
how long do memory cells last?
up to 50 years in the body
measles is a ? and is transmitted from droplets from coughing and ? , or if people breathe or come into ? with contaminated ? or surfaces.
typical symptoms are RASH, ? like symptoms and acne as well as small ? spots in ? ,
a treatment is to drink lots of ? and wash hands as well as getting a ? vaccine
virus, sneezing, contact, air, cold, white spots, fluids, MMR
HIV stands for what?
Human immunodeficiency virus
HIV is transmitted by direct ? with bodily ?, eg blood, semen, rectal ?, vaginal fluids and ? milk, can also be transmitted when ? needles
symptoms include -
influenza - headaches, fatigue, ? muscles and swollen ? nodes, and without treatment can develop into ?
preventions and treatments include - using ? during sex, limiting no of sexual ?, don’t inject drugs, or share ?, can take ? drugs to manage symptoms and stop the virus ? with PEP
contact, fluids, fluids, breast, sharing, aching, lymph, AIDS, protection, partners, needles, Antiretroviral, replicating/reproducing
Tobacco mosaic ? - is transmitted by ? wounds or physical ? or by a damaged cell ?
symptoms are mosaic ? pattern, plant veins will appear ? and plants won’t be able to ?
preventions of TMV is to remove all ? plants and destroy/ ? them, and clean equipment and don’t keep seeds of infected ?
virus, mechanical, contact, membrane, discolouration, yellow, photosynthesise, infected, burn, plants
salmonella is a ? which lives in the intestinal tract of ? and other animals, is transmitted through putting infected food or ? with the bacteria from ? in your ?, can also be caused by ? food, symptoms includes dehydration, diarrhoea, ? cramps and symptoms of food ? as well as a sickness ? and fever,
preventions include washing hands ?, vaccinations, appropriately stored food to avoid ?, cook food properly, especially ? !! take ? and rest and eat ? foods and rehydrate
bacteria, humans, water, faeces, mouth, uncooked, stomach, poisoning, bug, regularly/ often, contamination, chicken!!!, antibiotics,bland
gonhorrea is a ? and also and STD, meaning it is spread by ? contact, bodily ? and can also be spread from mother to ? in uterus. symptoms for women include heavier ?, yellow discharge, and for men swelling , ? or redness as well as fevers and ? throats for both. preventions include ? and barrier protections and can be treated with ?
bacteria, sexual, fluids, body, menstruation, pain, sore, condoms, antibiotics
what did gonhorrea become resistant to?
penicillin
rose black spot is a ? it grows in ? and likes damp, ? conditions. it is transmitted by raindrops carrying ? and dropping them onto other ?, as well as via wind,
symptoms include - small dark ? spots, which increase in ? and turn black over ?, as well as premature falling off of ? leaves , it also has ? scab like spots on stems , preventions include pruning and ? infected leaves, ? overwaterjng and and can use ?
fungi, roses, dark, spores, plants, purple, size, time, infected, black, burning, avoid, fungicides
malaria is a ?, it is spread by a vector ( a female ?), and can be spread through ? so can be passed on to child at birth or to ? child,
symptoms include - fever, diarrhoea, muscle ? and can become ?, preventions include - insect ?, vaccine if have ? stages of it, anti malarial tablet, killing ?, education about ?, mosquito ? and draining stagnant ?
protist (plasmodium protist), mosquito, child, unborn, pain, fatal, repellent, early, mosquitos, mosquitos, nets, water
what do antibodies do?
they attach to antigens which are substances not from the body on the surfaces or pathogens
why can antibodies attach to antigens?
because the antigens are designed to fit perfectly with the antibodies - they have a complimentary fit
why do lymphocytes make lots of antibodies?
to increase the chance of an antibody binding to an antigen
lymphocytes make ? of copies of the ? that was complimentary to the ? in order to destroy the pathogen more ? and efficiently
1000s, antibody, antigen, quickly
if a person gets a pathogen again that they’ve already had how will the memory cell react?
it will recognise the antigen of the pathogen, and create lots of antibodies to fight off the pathogen quickly
how long does it take for the antibodies to fight the pathogen the second time? and what does it mean after this?
2-3 days, you should be immune to the pathogen
what is a vaccination? it involves introducing ? quantities of dead or ? forms of a pathogen into the ? to stimulate the ? to produce antibodies. if the same ? re enters the body, it will respond ? to produce the correct ? , preventing ?
small, inactive, body, stimulate, pathogen, quicker, antibodies, infection
what are positives of vaccines?
- protects people with low/ weak immunity - babies, the elderly and infants
- protetcs from many pathogens
- allows people to go to work and support family as well as to travel
What are the negatives of vaccines?
- conspiracy theories
- allergies
- fear of needles
- expensive in other countries
- side effects
- religious beliefs, or personal choices
why is a flu vaccine needed every year? ? strains, may be some antigen ?, so antibodies are no longer ? to them
different, mutation, complimentary
herd immunity - the resistance to the ? of an infectious disease within a population that is ? on pre- existing ? of a high proportion of individuals as a result of a previous ? or infection
spread, based, immunity, vaccination
what is an example of no herd immunity??
no people are immunised - half are sick half are healthy and the disease spread through the population
what is an example of some herd immunity?
some of the population is immunised, as well as some who are healthy and sick and not immunised - now the disease spreads through only some of the population
give an example of good herd immunity
almost everyone is vaccinated, so the speed of the disease is contained
what drug did foxgloves provide?
digitalis
what is digitalis?
the heart drug
what is AIDS?
when your immune system shuts down and stops working - due to having HIV and lack of treatment for it
what provides aspirin?
willow bark
what was penicillin discovered from?
penicillium mold
what are the 4 main essentials of medicine?
- efficacy or effectiveness
- dose or dosage
- safety
- stability
a drug is any ? that alters how the ? works. medicines contain useful ? that aim to relieve ? or treat/ ? underlying illnesses by destroying ?
chemical, body, drugs, symptoms, cure, pathogens!!
antibiotics only kill bacteria, why?? :
- they can interfere with bacterial metabolism
- slows down bacterial growth, giving more time for the immune system to work
how did Alexander Fleming discover the first antibiotic?
he found fungus on a plate of bacteria - but with no bacteria around the fungus as it had destroyed the bacterial cell wall - killing the bacteria and he called this penicillium mould
3 ways to reduce the rate of development of antibiotic resistant strains :
- doctors only ? antibiotics if needed
- have to complete ? of antibiotics - so take all the ones you are ?, in order to kill all the ? and ensure none ?
- restrict agricultural uses of ?
prescribe, course, prescribed/ given, bacteria, mutate, antibiotics
what do antivirals treat and how do they work?
they treat viruses and work by slowing down the rate of viral infection/ reproduction
what are painkillers ?
drugs that relieve pain, DONT KILL PAIN!!!
antibiotics damage bacterial cells without damaging the cells in your body true or false?
true!
6 marker on mutation:
most bacteria are not ? to antibiotics,
however ? bacterium can have a random chance ?, giving it resistance. if there are no ? in the body, we do not know if any have ?, but if a person ? take antibiotics all the non resistant ? are destroyed - leaving only the resistant to ? , and the resistant cannot be destroyed by ? . the resistant bacteria thrive and ? to increase the population of ? bacteria in the body and thrives because there is no ?
resistant, one, mutation, antibiotics, resistance, does, bacteria, survive, antibiotics, reproduce, resistant, competition
what are the two types of pre clinical testing?
lab and animal testing
what happens in lab testing and what is this testing for?
test using computer and human skin cells are done in the lab - this is to test effectiveness and side effects
what happens in animal testing and what is it testing for?
a variety of animals are used and tested in usually rodents etc and is testing for effectiveness and monitors for side effects
Phase 1 -
20 - ? healthy volunteers ( normally ? ) start at low dose and build up - this is looking at safety and ?
80, students, dosage
Phase 2 - 100 - 300 ? volunteers are tested - looking at efficacy, safety/ side ? and ?
ill, effects, dosage
Phase 3 - 1000+ ? volunteers are tested - now looking at ? term effects.
ill, long
what happens in phase 3 of a drug trial?
patients are randomly allocated into ? , and no one - doctors ? and patients know what the patient is taking which is either the ? drug (test ?) or a placebo (control group) - this is called a ? blind treatment
groups, nurses, new, group, double
What happens in phase 4? -
the medicine is ? for use, but is still watched ? for any unexpected ? , so for example this is the time when doctors report on any ? effects suffered by ?
licensed, carefully, problems, side, patients
