biology 3 - MABs, Nervous System And The Eye Flashcards
What are monoclonal antibodies produced from?
a single clone of cells
Why are monoclonal antibodies so helpful? (What are they specific to?)
the antibodies are specific to one binding site on one protein antigen so can target a specific chemical or cells in the body
5 steps to make monoclonal antibodies -
Step 1 - a mouse is ? with a specific antigen to stimulate the ? to make the mouse’s body make a ? antibody
injected, lymphocytes, specific
Step 2 - extracted lymphocytes are then combined with a ? kind of tumour ?, detergents are used to break down the cell ? of both cells to help them ?
specific, cell, membrane, fuse/combine
what does the fusion of a lymphocyte and tumour make/produce
a hybridoma
why is a tumour cell used in monoclonal antibodies?
because tumours divides and clone easily and quickly
3- a hybridoma cell is made which can ? and form antibodies
divide
hybridoma are screened to check for ? production. ? hybridoma cells are cloned to produce many ? cells that all produce the same ? , these are called monoclonal antibodies otherwise known as ???
antibody, single, identical, antibody, MABs
Step 5 - a large amount of ? are collected and ?
MABs, purified
MABs in pregnancy tests… positive tests! what happens in the reaction zone?
hCG in the urine binds to the specific mobile MABs specific for hCG (in reaction zone)
what is hCG
an early pregnancy hormone
positive result - what happens after the reaction zone - urine containing hCG and mobile ? ? complex moves up strip and ? binds to the fixed specific MABs in the ? zone. this binding activates a ? which is the first line on the ?
hCG-MAB, hCG , results, dye, test
what happens in the control zone - positive test - remaining hCG- MAB complexes move up into the ? zone where there are fixed ? which are specific to the ? MABs from the ? zone. this binding activates another ? - giving ? lines
control, MABs, mobile, reaction, dye, two
what happens in a pregnancy test - negative result - reaction zone
no hCG in urine so no binding to mobile MABs in reaction zone
what happens in a pregnancy test - negative result, in the results zone - unbound ? MABs run up the test into the ? zone. as there is no ? no binding happens, and so no ? is released
mobile, results, hCG, dye
what happens in a pregnancy test - negative result, control zone - mobile ? from the reaction zone bind with the ? MABs in the ? zone as they are ? to each other which activates a ? and forming one ?
MABs, fixed, control, specific, dye, line
what are 3 reasons for fake negatives?
urine has been diluted, it is too early to tell, not enough hCG in the urine
what are two reasons fake positives for pregnancy tests?
people who’ve had cancer in their sex organs have antigens that are very similar to hCG,
also because of IVF
how can MABs also be used?
in research and cancer
two uses for MABs in research
to measure the levels of hormones and chemicals in blood, or to locate or identify specific molecules or pathogens in the body by binding to them with a fluorescent dye
how to use MABs to detect specific pathogens or molecules in a cell?
1. Make MAB specific to the ?
2. attach a ? dye to MAB
3. in the body the MAB will ? to the antigen and when binding happens the dye ?
4. doctors can detect pathogens/ ?/ clot easily
antigen, fluorescent, bind, glows, tumour
how do MABs work in treating cancer?
1. doctors make MAB ? to the antigen on the cancer ?
2. attach the drug to the ?
3. in the body the MAB only binds to the antigens on the ? cells and directly delivers the ? to the tumour. drug can then work on destroying the ?
specific, cells, MAB, cancer, drug, tumour
what can MABs also do?
clump tumour cells together to be engulfed by phagocytes - which can help medics locate and operate on tumour
what are pros of MABs?
- they are an effective treatment for diseases
- can treat a wide range of diseases
- bind to damaged cells or specific diseases that need treatment
- goes directly to disease, doesn’t go through body/ cells
cons of MABs
- side effects- like chills, fever rashes and nausea
- very expensive
- difficult to get the right antibodies
what’s the cns?
the central nervous system - the brain and spinal chord
what’s the pns?
the peripheral nervous system - neurons that carry electrical impulses to and from the CNS
reflex actions is a way for the body to ? and rapidly respond to a stimulus to ? and further damage to the ?. it follows a ? sequence and does not involve the ? part of the brain
automatically, minimize, body, general, conscious
what is the general sequence of reflex actions?
stimulus -> receptor -> sensory neurons -> CNS (relay neurons - spinal chord only!!) -> motor neurone -> effector -> response
nerve pathway after a ? action is called a reflex ?, a reflex ? is a lot ? because of this and is initially only involved in ? pathway
reflex, arc, action, quicker, one
how does the myelin sheath impact reaction time?
messages react quicker because of electrical impulses ‘jumping’ between nodes of Ranvier, so people react quicker and their reaction time decreases
why does reaction time increase if the myelin sheath is damaged?
because the electrical impulses cannnot jump as far
what is the myelin sheath?
and insulator
what is a synapse?
a gap between neurones
synapses - how they work :
1. the electrical ? arrived at the ? - synaptic terminal at the end of one ?
2. this causes vesicles (containing a chemical called a ? - transmitter) to be released in the ? cleft
3. neurotransmitters diffuse across the ? and quickly bind to receptors on the post synaptic ? on the dendrite of the other ?
4. the receptor molecules on the ? neurone bind to the ? neurotransmitter released from the first ? - which stimulates the second neurone to transmit the ? Impulse
impulse, pre, neurone, neuro, synaptic, cleft, terminal, neurone, second, specific, neurone, electrical
what 4 things to include in a 6 marker - to plan an investigation to test the effect of drinking coffee on reaction time?
the control variable, method, grouping (how many people), and analysis
what are some control variables in the coffee - reaction time experiment
amount of coffee consumed, ruled marked at 0cm, same arm from Sam’s height, similar age, sleep environment, diet, have to stare across the room so can’t see when dropping it
what are some grouping examples in the coffee - reaction time experiment
each person has to measure the before and after variable, as well as a large no of people need to do the experiment - large test group (100+)
what are some elements of the metjod in the coffee - reaction time experiment
- drop ruler into friends hand
catch ruler with thumb and forefinger from 0cm, drop randomly and use non dominant hand
what are some analysis points in the coffee - reaction time experiment
take a mean of reaction time before and after and compare means - on a graph or by statistical analysis and also compare to initial hypothesis
what do the number of fold in the brain tell someone
how intelligent the animal is, the more folded the more intelligent
are humans more closely related to chimpanzees than gorillas?
chimpanzees
what is the body mass : cranial capacity in humans, A.Aferensis and Chimpanzees
1:25, 1:11.5, 1:10
what are functions and features of the cerebrum
largest part of the brain, contains most of the neurons that carry out the cerebral functions, functions include consciousness, intelligence, memory, language and emotional responses
cerebral cortex has how many hemispheres which are how big?
contains two hemispheres - left and right, and they are 2-5 mmm, fine and folded
what is the cerebellum responsible for?
2nd largest part of beain, DOESNT initiate movement but helps coordination, precision and accurate timing. it also receives input from sensory systems mostly in the cpu
what is the medulla oblongata involved in
unconscious activities, eg : controlling heartbeat, gut, breathing, vomiting and blood pressure
what is the hypothalamus?
small part of brain- big job - links nervous system to pituitary gland, also involved in instinctive behaviours : feeding, fleeing, fighting and mating, also contains a lot of receptors
pituitary gland - what is it and what is it called? x
the ‘master gland’ - releases hormones that causes other glands to release hormone which brings about a response. released hormones also because of the hypothalamus releasing hormones, two parts of these hormones
what are the two types of hormones the pituitary gland (initiated from the hypothalamus) produces anterior - adrenal cortex, bone and muscle, skin thyroid and posterior - testis, ovaries, breats, kidneys!
anterior - adrenal cortex, bone and muscle, skin thyroid and posterior - testis, ovaries, breats, kidneys!
pros and cons of MRIs :
pros - can detect cancer ?, clots and abnormal blood ?, uses magnetic ? and radio waves to produce very detailed ?, as well as it’s not ? and doesn’t use ionizing ?
cells, flow, fields, images, invasive, radiation
cons of MRIs? very ?, can’t distinguish between benign and ? tumours, and the person is in an enclosed ?
expensive, malignant, space
pros of CT scans - not ?, can easily diagnose conditions, and also ? these conditions, not as ? as MRIs, can guide further ? or treatment , eg location of ?
invasive, monitor, invasive, tests, tumour
cons of CT scans? - some risk from ? radiation and the injection of ? which can lead to a metallic ? in the mouth and some ? effects
ionizing, dye, taste, side
how does an EEG work?
it works by attaching small sensors all over the scalp to detect electrical signals produced when the brain’s cells send messages to one another
pros of EEGs - can be used to detect things such as memory problems, epilepsy or ?, is very safe - ? electricity is put into body, and these can be read to detect any ? activity
cons of EEGs - can’t be used to detect cancer or any other ? that doesn’t alter electrical ? , as well as this you need a highly ? specialist to read the EEG
fits, no, unusual, disease, signals, trained
cons of using monoclonal antibodies as treatment?
can cause skin changes, such as itchy and sore skin or an itchy rash
pros and cons of brain surgery?
can remove as much of tumour as possible, but at a high risk to the patient as it can cause brain damage, infection and increase possibility of a stroke
pros and cons of a brain implant?
implants ab electrode into parts of brain where it might not receive natural stimulation - which can help early Parkinson’s disease, but the brain may get damaged in the process
what is the right cerebral hemisphere?
it is 6 layers of cerebral cortex containing cell bodies of neurons is part of the brain that processes grey matter - right brain functions are art awareness creativity imagination etc
what does the size of pupil control?
how much light enters the eyes
what happens if too much or too little light enters the eyes
too much- retinal damage, too little - can’t see
what is accommodation?
the process of changing the shape of the lense to focus on near or distant objects (using cilliary muscles and suspensory ligaments)
what happens if the object is distant?
rays of light from objects are almost ?, so not much needs to be done to focus the ? on the retina - meaning the cilliary muscles ? and the suspension ? are pulled tight - meaning the lens is pulled ? and refracts the light rays less ?
parallel, light, relax, ligaments, thin, strongly
what is different in nearby objects to seeing distant objects?
the light diverges, so the cilliary muscles contract, suspension ligaments relax and loosen and the lens is thicker enabling it to refract the light more strongly
what happens to the pupils in dim light?
they dilate to allowe more light into eyes, radial muscles contact, and circular muscles relax
what happens to the pupils in bright light?
they shrink to provide protection from retinal damage, meaning less light is let in and the radial muscles relax which the circular ones contract
if you’re short sighted what do you call it and what can you and can’t see
it’s called myopia and you CAN see short distances but struggle to see long ones
what is hyperopia?
when you can see long distances but struggle to see short distances ; being long sighted
why do more people have to get glasses as they get older?
because the lens in their eye is less elastic than before and their cilliary muscles are weaker and it’s harder to make the lens round and thick
where is the image formed in myopia (relative to the retina) - why, and what can solve this?
in front of the retina, normally because the lens is too strong, the eyeball is too long, or the cornea refracts too curved light - this can all be solved by a concave lens which diverges the light
where is the image formed in hyperopia (relative to the retina) - why, and what can solve this?
behind the retina, normally because the lens is not thick enough to refract the light, or the eyeball is too short, and this can all be solved by a convex lens
what is a stimulus? and give an example
a change in the environment, eg a flash of light
what is a receptor ? and give an example
a detection of the change, eg a photoreceptor - in the eye
what is a co-ordinator? and give an example
it’s an integration of information that processes and coordinates a response, eg : the brain!! x
what is an effector?
a muscle or gland that brings about a response
what is a response? and give an example
a contraction or secretion, eg blinking or sweat
what is the stimulus, sense organ and receptor of sight
change in light, eyes, photo receptors
what is the stimulus, sense organ and receptor of hearing
sound, vibrations, cochlea (auditory receptors)
what is the stimulus, sense organ and receptor of taste
chemical, tongue, chemicals in the air etc
what is the stimulus, sense organ and receptor of smell
chemicals in the air, nose, chemoreceptor
what is the stimulus, sense organ and receptor of touch
mechanical forces, skin, and mechanoreceptors
what is the stimulus, sense organ and receptor of body positioning
change in position, ears eyes - any sense, proprioreceptor
what is a Schwann cell?
an individual cell on a neurone
what are the nodes of Ranvier ?
the gaps in between schwann cells
what is the axon?
the post cell body
what is the dendron?
pre cell body
what is the myelin sheath?
collection of Schwann cells
what makes up the cell body in a neurone?
nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes
what are dendrites?
look like little spindly nerve endings
2 differences between sensory and motor neurons
in the sensory neurone the dendrites are at the end of the neurone - to the left of the cell body, whereas in the motor neurone the dendrites are at the tips of the cell body. in the motor neurone it is at the end of the cell whereas in the sensory neurone it is more in the middle of the cell. they are also different shapes - the sensory neurone more of an oval shape and the motor neurone more of a star shape. (also motor neurone has no sende on only axon but sensory has both.)
what does the retina contain?
rods and cones which are sensitive to light
what are found in the fovea?
max density of cone cells - most of light is refracted here
what’s the sclera
tough outer coating to protect the eye
what’s the cornea?
where 70% of the light is refracted into the eye
optic nerve?
nerve impulses from retina are carried to brain
iris..?
controls amount of light entering the eye!!!
what’s the pupil?
a hole which lets light into the eye
lens?
refracts light into the retina!
cilliary muscles and suspensory ligaments do what?
change the shape of the lens
bio required practical bacteria and Petri dish- why sterilize the forceps?
to remove any pathogens, to make sure there’s no contamination
bio required practical bacteria and Petri dish - why work next to a lot Bunsen burner?
so the airs sterilized and doesn’t contaminate the experiment
bio required practical bacteria and Petri dish - why open the bacteria plays towards the Bunsen Burner?
it’s the most sterile direction
bio required practical bacteria and Petri dish - why only tape in 4 places not all the way round?
to allow some air so no anaerobic bacterium - which is more dangerous
bio required practical bacteria and Petri dish - why store the dish upside down?
any moisture/ condensation from bacterial respiration settles on lid not afar, otherwise bacteria could die
bio required practical bacteria and Petri dish - why incubate at roughly 30 degrees?
warm enough - around room temp to allow bacterial division/growth
bio required practical bacteria and Petri dish - why label with date and type of bacteria?
knew when to remove it and know what level of danger it is
