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Chemistryyy > Endrocrine > Flashcards

Endrocrine Flashcards

1
Q

what is body temperature determined by

A

the thermoregulatimg centre (in the hypothalamus)

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2
Q

what organ does the body detect a change in temp with and what kind of receptors?

A

skin and muscles - with the thermoreceptors

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3
Q

what happens if you are too hot?
sweat is produced by ? glands, and when it ? it takes heat energy ? from the body,
- vasodilation - the blood vessels in the skin ? / widen which releases heat - so more blood flows near surface of ? , and no ? as don’t want to generate heat, no trapped insulating air, and the ? muscles relax

A

sweat, evaporates, away
dilate, skin, shivering, erector

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4
Q

what happens when you’re too cold and need to warm up?
no heat lost by ?,
vasoconstriction- blood vessels ?, so blood vessels are ? on Surface of skin,
this happens because when you shiver - involuntary muscle ? , so the erector ? contract, hair stands up on ?, and so ? happens

A

sweating, contract, narrowed, contractions, muscles, end, vasoconstriction

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5
Q

what are endocrine glands?

A

glands which secrete hormones directly into the blood

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6
Q

what’s a hormone??

A

a chemical messenger that travels in the bloodstream

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7
Q

what is blood plasma?

A

something that makes up most of there blood - is the liquid component that other components are suspended in

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8
Q

target organ?

A

organ upon which the hormone aims to change the activity of

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9
Q

adrenaline

A

hormone which triggers the fight or flight response

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10
Q

testosterone

A

male sex organ

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11
Q

diabetes - a disorder in which the body’s ? to produce or respond to ? is impaired, resulting in elevated blood ? levels

A

ability, insulin, glucose/sugar

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12
Q

islets if langerhans :
release ? which travels in the ? towards the liver, resulting in a ? (which lowers blood ? concentration)

A

insulin, bloodstream, response, glucose

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13
Q

What is the target organ of glucagon?

A

The liver

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14
Q

What is the target organ of insulin?

A

The liver

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15
Q

When does hypoglycaemia occur?

A

when the blood glucose level is too low

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16
Q

When does hyperglycaemia occur?

A

when the levels of blood glucose is too high

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17
Q

what happens in the islets of langerhans when the blood sugar levels are too low

A

the cells of the islets or langerhans (in the pancreas) produce the hormone glucagon

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18
Q

What happens at the liver?
When glucagon arrives at the ? cells, it stimulates them to :
1. convert ? (more complex carbohydrate) back into glucose (simple ?)
3. glucose will then ? out of the ? cells and back into the ?

A

liver, glycogen, sugar, diffuse, liver, bloodstream

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19
Q

4 facts about the pancreas :
- it has patches of ? called the islets of ?
- they detect the ? of glucose in blood
- if blood sugar levels are too ? the cells of the ? of langerhans produce the hormone ?

A

receptors, langerhans
level
High, islets, insulin

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20
Q

what does insulin ? the liver cells to do?
1. remove ? from the blood and and store it in ? cells, by converting it to glycogen
2. increase the respiration ? of the liver cells, so more ? is broken down - this causes the blood glucose level to ?

A

stimulate, glucose, their,
rate, glucose, decrease

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21
Q

filtration - 5 steps
1. Blood enters kidneys via renal ?
2, small molecules (including amino ?, glucose and ?), as well as ions and water are filtered out of ? into small tubules
3. to get from blood to ?, substances need to pass through a ? like membrane called a ?
4. the ? acts like a sieve - so only allows ? molecules through
5. large proteins and red ? cells CANNOT pass ?

A
  1. arteries
  2. acids, urea, blood
  3. tubule, sieve, basement
  4. membrane, small
  5. blood, through
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22
Q

6 steps of selective reabsorption??
1. first step is ultrafiltration at the ? between ? and nephron
2. some of the ? molecules that have been filtered out of ? are useful - eg glucose and some ?
3. these molecules are ? reabsorbed into the ? this process is a ? of active transport as it requires ?
4. water is then ? by osmosis
5. remaining non - ? molecules, eg : urea, excess salts and ? are not selectively ?
6. these are now referred to as ? which travels to the ? via the ureter

A

1.membrane, bloodstream
2. small, blood, ions
3. selectively, blood, type/form, energy
4. reabsorbed
5. useful, water, reabsorbed,
6. urine, bladder

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23
Q

what happens if there is a decrease in water concentration (in the blood) -
1. blood is more ?
2. this change is detected by osmoreceptors in the ?
3. large amount of ADH is ? from posterior ? gland
4. ADH travels in ? to the target organ (the ? )
5. high ADH levels cause ? tubules to become more permeable to ?
6. more water is ? back into blood, so blood becomes more ?
7. more ? urine produced

A
  1. concentration
  2. hypothalamus
  3. released, pituitary
  4. blood, kidneys
  5. kidney, water
  6. reabsorbed, dilute
  7. concentrated
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24
Q

what happens if there is an increase in water concentration?

A

the exact opposite of the decrease (on card 23)!!!

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25
Q

difference between nervous system and endocrine system for form of message?

A

nervous - electrical impulses by a neurone
endocrine - hormones (chemical messages)

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26
Q

how does the longevity of response compare between the nervous system and endocrine system?

A

nervous - short response/ duration
endocrine - long response/ duration

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27
Q

how does the speed of transmission compare between the nervous system and endocrine system?

A

nervous - very fast
endocrine - slow

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28
Q

where is the thyroid located?

A

just below neck

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29
Q

where is the pancreas (islets of langerhans)

A

underneath the stomach

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30
Q

where are the adrenal glands?

A

just above the kidneys

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31
Q

endocrine glands produce and ? hormones into the ? . tiny concentrations of these ? are carried by the blood ? to target organs - and the specific ? then respond to these chemicals. these ? may be short lived (like adrenaline) or ? lasting eg (?)

A

secrete, blood, chemicals, plasma, tissues, responses, long, testosterone

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32
Q

what does thyroxine do?

A

controls metabolic rate

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33
Q

what does adrenaline do?

A

the fight or flight response

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34
Q

what does ADH do and what gland is it produced by?

A

controls water content of the body by the kidney, and the pituitary gland

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35
Q

what does insulin do?

A

lowers blood sugar/glucose levels

36
Q

What does glucagon do?

A

raises blood glucose/sugar levels!! x

37
Q

what is the difference between type 1 and 2 diabetes? make 3 comparisons

A
  • type 1 cannot be treated can only be coped with by injecting insulin - while type 2 can be treated with antibiotics
  • type 1 is hereditary or something that someone gets due to natural causes, whereas type 2 is closely linked with obesity and lifestyle (eg fatty/salty diet or no exercise)
  • type 1 is where no insulin is secreted, whereas type 2 is when the body cells have become resistant and don’t react to insulin - so therefore blood sugar levels stay very high
38
Q

5 symptoms of diabetes?

A
  • tiredness
  • frequent urination
  • blurred vision
  • loss of weight
  • thirst
39
Q

what percentage of people with diabetes have type 1 diabetes

A

8%

40
Q

there is no cure for type 1 diabetes? true or false

A

true

41
Q

can untreated diabetes lead to death? yes or no?

A

yes

42
Q

the action of taking away ab amino group from a molecule - what is this the definition of?

A

deamination

43
Q

example of deamination - in the ? , amino ? have their amino ? removed to become ?

A

liver, acids, groups, ammonia

44
Q

after the excess amino acids have their amino groups removed what do they become and what happens afterwards?

A

ammonia, it is converted to urea as ammonia is highly toxic

45
Q

why is urea a preferred compound to ammonia? (and what happens to it)

A

it is a less toxic compound than ammonia, and can be excreted from the body by the kidneys (in the urine)

46
Q

what is the nephron?

A

the functional unit in the kidney and there are around 1 M in every kidney

47
Q

what is the nephrons job?

A

to filter the blood and remove the toxic urea - and also regulate the salt and water content of blood

48
Q

5 main reasons for kidney failure
- excessive ? consumption
- drug ?
- bacteria ?
- diabetes
- high blood ?

A

alcohol, consumption, infections, pressure

49
Q

steps in dialysis :
1. blood is removed from ? arm and enters the ? machine
2. an anticoagulant is added to the ?
3. waste ? into the dialysis ? across the semi ? membrane and sometimes useful ? diffuse into the ?
4. to ensure a high concentration ?, dialysis fluid and ? run countercurrent to each ?
5. concentration of ions and ? in ? fluid is closely monitored to ensure the correct ? ends up in the blood
6. after a couple ? dialysis fluid is drained and ?

A

patient’s, dialysis
blood
diffuses, fluid, permeable, substances, blood
gradient, blood
glucose, dialysis, concentration/amount
hours, destroyed

50
Q

steps to kidney transplant?
1. kidney selection takes ?, and the donor is often a close ? as they normally have a better blood ? and tissue match
2. recipient abdomen is ? and their kidney is connected to : an artery and ? to ensure blood ?, the ureter so ? can be drained to the bladder
3. if the new ? is in place, the recipient needs to be on ? suppressants for the rest of their ?, which gives them a reduced immune ? and a greater risk of ?

A

place, relative, type
opened, vein, supply, urine
kidney, immuno, life, system, cancer

51
Q

why is there quite a high chance of rejection of the transplanted kidney?

A

as it will be foreign to the body, as the immune system will make antibodies to attack kidney antigens - which may stop new kidney from functioning and cause harmful side effects

52
Q

two ways of minimizing chance of rejection?

A

immunosuppressants - however these can cause infection and cancer
trying to find a tissue match between recipient and donor

53
Q

FSH - where is it produced, what does it do and how does it interact with other hormones?

A

pituitary gland, maturation of eggs, stimulates oestrogen secretion, but is inhibited oestrogen and progesterone

54
Q

LH - where is it produced, what does it do and how does it interact with other hormones?

A

pituitary gland, controls ovulation, is stimulated by oestrogen and inhibited by progesterone

55
Q

Oestrogen - where is it produced, what does it do and how does it interact with other hormones?

A

ovary tissues, causes uterine lining to grow, stimulated by FSH, inhibits FSH and stimulates LH

56
Q

Progesterone - where is it produced, what does it do and how does it interact with other hormones?

A

Follicle, maintains uterine lining, is stimulated by LH (due to the empty egg follicle post ovulation) , inhibits FSH and LH

57
Q

3 main pros of dialysis?

A
  • reverse symptoms (of chronic kidney disease)
  • life saving treatment
  • treat complications - (such as lethargy, loss of appetite/ weight and fluid retentions) of kidney failure
58
Q

3 main cons of dialysis?

A
  • have to have a restricted diet - for example a low protein diet and can’t have some fluids
  • it can be very time consuming and expensive
  • it’s an intermittent treatment but can still last to up to 6 hours
59
Q

3 main pros of kidney transplant?

A
  • gives patients with end stage renal failure better chance of survival - and means they are less likely to be admitted to hospital
  • reduces likelihood of complications like bone disease
  • don’t have restrictions from dialysis
60
Q

3 main cons of kidney transplant?

A
  • significant and potentially very dangerous operation
  • have to take immunosuppressants for life (as well as side effects for these)
  • hard to find a match for both blood type and tissues
61
Q

why may some women be prescribed fertility drugs?
to stimulate ?, due to some women having too low ? levels to promote egg ? so they can’t ovulate or ? naturally

A

ovulation, LH, maturations, conceive

62
Q

The NHS recommends seeing a GP after trying and with no successful pregnancy after how long ? (and how long if the woman is over 35)

A

1 year, or six months

63
Q

what are the two main medicines you can take to NATURALLY stimulate your body to make FSH and LH?

A

clomiphene - which stimulates the two pituitary gland hormones
tamoxifen - an alternative to clomiphene which stimulates ovulation

64
Q

What two medicines can a woman take which are UNNATURAL and which instead mimic the effects of LH and FSH?

A

GONAL - f : which contains follitropin alpha which mimics the effects of FSH
menotropins : range of drugs containing both LH and FSH

65
Q

what is the alternative to medication for pregnancy? (and what does it stand for and mean)

A

IVF - in vitro fertilisation - fusion of gametes in glass

66
Q

what happens in IVF?

A

eggs are collected from ovary and fertilized with sperm from the father then implanted back into the uterus

67
Q

when is IVF more likely to be successful? (5 examples)

A

if the woman has previously been pregnant, are aged below 35, BMI between the range of 19-30, has a low caffein intake and is a non smoker

68
Q

how many of embryos produced by IVF have an incorrect number of chromosomes and who are more likely to have these egg cells/ embryos?

A

around half, and normally older women are more likely

69
Q

what removed cells from the embryo to test for chromosomal abnormalities before implantation?

A

PGT - A

70
Q

Over ? million IVF cycles have taken place in the ? since 1981, which resulted in the birth of ? babies

A

1.2, UK, 390,000

71
Q

In England what percentage of IVF cycles are funded by the NHS? (and what is the cost of an IVF package)

A

25%, around £5,000

72
Q

Two scientific issues surrounding the use of IVF?

A
  • risk of miscarriage
  • multiple births (like quadruplets)
73
Q

Three ethical issues surrounding the use of IVF?

A
  • embryos are discarded (could be classed as killing)
  • stem cells are kept in freezers which can be unethical and expensive
  • separating sex from reproduction isn’t right - view of some religions
74
Q

Three social issues surrounding the use of IVF?

A
  • could have old parents who die early before child could grow up - leading to being put in an orphanage/ foster parents, loss of childhood
  • might find it hard to raise kids if they’re older or not be able to support them
  • multiple births
75
Q

Three economic issues surrounding the use of IVF?

A
  • can be expensive to keep in freezers
  • multiple births - may not be able to support them
  • £5,000 for one IVF cycle and people may not be able to buy another one if the first was unsuccessful
76
Q

Three emotional issues surrounding the use of IVF?

A
  • stress from involuntary childlessness, so even more stress and distress from IVF can lead to bad mental health
  • stress from less than a 33% chance of successful live births
  • may be health issues associated with multiple births - very distressing!!!
77
Q

3 negative facts of IVF
- single babies born from ? are more likely to be ? or low birth ?
- embryos which are not ? of are frozen for future ? are destroyed
- as the woman’s age ?, so does the risk of ?

A
  • IVF, premature, weight
  • implanted, use
  • increases, miscarriage
78
Q

what does the combined pill do and how effective is it? plus pros and cons

A

inhibits FSH secretion (with oestrogen and progesterone) so no maturation of eggs, 99%
pros - reduces bleeding and pain
cons - vomiting or diarrhoea can make it less effective

79
Q

what does the mini pill do and how effective is it, plus pros and cons?

A

inhibits secretion of pituitary hormones, (with progesterone), thickens cervical mucus to make it harder for sperm tk reach, over 99%,
can be used by over 35, smokers or breastfeeding women, but same negatives as combined pill

80
Q

what does the contraceptive implant/ patch do and how effective is it, plus pros and cons?

A

patch contains oestrogen and progesterone, implant inserted under skin for 3 years - stops FSH secretion, over 99%,
patch can improve bleeding and periods and make it less painful, but can cause irritation
implant - can be used for 3 years, but requires small procedure to place and remove it

81
Q

what does the female/male condom do and how effective is it, plus pros and cons?

A

female - lines vagina and covers area outside stopping sperm - 95%, male - covers penis - stop sperm from escaping - 98%.
f + m Pros - best way to protect against STIs
f - cons - not as widely available, m - could slip off or split

82
Q

what does the diaphragm/ cap with spermicide do and how effective is it, plus pros and cons?

A

rubber device pit into vaguna to cover cervix with spermicide to prevent sperm from reaching, 92-96%, pros - can be put in whenever before sex, cons - extra spermicide is needed if you have sex again plus is interruptive

83
Q

what does the intrauterine device do and how effective is it, plus pros and cons?

A

small plastic and copper device put into uterus , over 99%, pros - can stay in 5-10 years or earlier if needed, cons - periods may be heavier larger or more painful

84
Q

what is tubal ligation?

A

sterilisation of females - when the fallopians tubes are cut or tied preventing eggs from reaching the uterus

85
Q

what is vasectomy?

A

sterilisation do makes - when the sperm ducts are cut or tied - preventing sperm from travelling from the testes

Chemistryyy (40 decks)

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