Endrocrine Flashcards
what is body temperature determined by
the thermoregulatimg centre (in the hypothalamus)
what organ does the body detect a change in temp with and what kind of receptors?
skin and muscles - with the thermoreceptors
what happens if you are too hot?
sweat is produced by ? glands, and when it ? it takes heat energy ? from the body,
- vasodilation - the blood vessels in the skin ? / widen which releases heat - so more blood flows near surface of ? , and no ? as don’t want to generate heat, no trapped insulating air, and the ? muscles relax
sweat, evaporates, away
dilate, skin, shivering, erector
what happens when you’re too cold and need to warm up?
no heat lost by ?,
vasoconstriction- blood vessels ?, so blood vessels are ? on Surface of skin,
this happens because when you shiver - involuntary muscle ? , so the erector ? contract, hair stands up on ?, and so ? happens - this reduces energy ?
sweating, contract, narrowed, contractions, muscles, end, vasoconstriction, loss
what are endocrine glands?
glands which secrete hormones directly into the blood
what’s a hormone??
a chemical messenger that travels in the bloodstream
what is blood plasma?
something that makes up most of there blood - is the liquid component that other components are suspended in
target organ?
organ upon which the hormone aims to change the activity of
adrenaline
hormone which triggers the fight or flight response
testosterone
male sex organ
diabetes - a disorder in which the body’s ? to produce or respond to ? is impaired, resulting in elevated blood ? levels
ability, insulin, glucose/sugar
islets if langerhans :
release ? which travels in the ? towards the liver, resulting in a ? (which lowers blood ? concentration)
insulin, bloodstream, response, glucose
What is the target organ of glucagon?
The liver
What is the target organ of insulin?
The liver
When does hypoglycaemia occur?
when the blood glucose level is too low
When does hyperglycaemia occur?
when the levels of blood glucose is too high
what happens in the islets of langerhans when the blood sugar levels are too low
the cells of the islets or langerhans (in the pancreas) produce the hormone glucagon
What happens at the liver?
When glucagon arrives at the ? cells, it stimulates them to :
1. convert ? (more complex carbohydrate) back into glucose (simple ?)
3. glucose will then ? out of the ? cells and back into the ?
liver, glycogen, sugar, diffuse, liver, bloodstream
4 facts about the pancreas :
- it has patches of ? called the islets of ?
- they detect the ? of glucose in blood
- if blood sugar levels are too ? the cells of the ? of langerhans produce the hormone ?
receptors, langerhans
level
High, islets, insulin
what does insulin ? the liver cells to do?
1. remove ? from the blood and and store it in ? cells, by converting it to glycogen
2. increase the respiration ? of the liver cells, so more ? is broken down - this causes the blood glucose level to ?
stimulate, glucose, their,
rate, glucose, decrease
filtration - 5 steps
1. Blood enters kidneys via renal ?
2, small molecules (including amino ?, glucose and ?), as well as ions and water are filtered out of ? into small tubules
3. to get from blood to ?, substances need to pass through a ? like membrane called a ?
4. the ? acts like a sieve - so only allows ? molecules through
5. large proteins and red ? cells CANNOT pass ?
- arteries
- acids, urea, blood
- tubule, sieve, basement
- membrane, small
- blood, through
6 steps of selective reabsorption??
1. first step is ultrafiltration at the ? between ? and nephron
2. some of the ? molecules that have been filtered out of ? are useful - eg glucose and some ?
3. these molecules are ? reabsorbed into the ? this process is a ? of active transport as it requires ?
4. water is then ? by osmosis
5. remaining non - ? molecules, eg : urea, excess salts and ? are not selectively ?
6. these are now referred to as ? which travels to the ? via the ureter
1.membrane, bloodstream
2. small, blood, ions
3. selectively, blood, type/form, energy
4. reabsorbed
5. useful, water, reabsorbed,
6. urine, bladder
what happens if there is a decrease in water concentration (in the blood) -
1. blood is more ?
2. this change is detected by osmoreceptors in the ?
3. large amount of ADH is ? from posterior ? gland
4. ADH travels in ? to the target organ (the ? )
5. high ADH levels cause ? tubules to become more permeable to ?
6. more water is ? back into blood, so blood becomes more ?
7. more ? urine produced
- concentration
- hypothalamus
- released, pituitary
- blood, kidneys
- kidney, water
- reabsorbed, dilute
- concentrated
what happens if there is an increase in water concentration?
the exact opposite of the decrease (on card 23)!!!
difference between nervous system and endocrine system for form of message?
nervous - electrical impulses by a neurone
endocrine - hormones (chemical messages)
how does the longevity of response compare between the nervous system and endocrine system?
nervous - short response/ duration
endocrine - long response/ duration
how does the speed of transmission compare between the nervous system and endocrine system?
nervous - very fast
endocrine - slow
where is the thyroid located?
just below neck
where is the pancreas (islets of langerhans)
underneath the stomach
where are the adrenal glands?
just above the kidneys
endocrine glands produce and ? hormones into the ? . tiny concentrations of these ? are carried by the blood ? to target organs - and the specific ? then respond to these chemicals. these ? may be short lived (like adrenaline) or ? lasting eg (?)
secrete, blood, chemicals, plasma, tissues, responses, long, testosterone
what does thyroxine do?
controls metabolic rate
what does adrenaline do?
the fight or flight response
what does ADH do and what gland is it produced by?
controls water content of the body by the kidney, and the pituitary gland
what does insulin do?
lowers blood sugar/glucose levels
What does glucagon do?
raises blood glucose/sugar levels!! x
what is the difference between type 1 and 2 diabetes? make 3 comparisons
- type 1 cannot be treated can only be coped with by injecting insulin - while type 2 can be treated with antibiotics
- type 1 is hereditary or something that someone gets due to natural causes, whereas type 2 is closely linked with obesity and lifestyle (eg fatty/salty diet or no exercise)
- type 1 is where no insulin is secreted, whereas type 2 is when the body cells have become resistant and don’t react to insulin - so therefore blood sugar levels stay very high
5 symptoms of diabetes?
- tiredness
- frequent urination
- blurred vision
- loss of weight
- thirst
what percentage of people with diabetes have type 1 diabetes
8%
there is no cure for type 1 diabetes? true or false
true
can untreated diabetes lead to death? yes or no?
yes
the action of taking away ab amino group from a molecule - what is this the definition of?
deamination
example of deamination - in the ? , amino ? have their amino ? removed to become ?
liver, acids, groups, ammonia
after the excess amino acids have their amino groups removed what do they become and what happens afterwards?
ammonia, it is converted to urea as ammonia is highly toxic
why is urea a preferred compound to ammonia? (and what happens to it)
it is a less toxic compound than ammonia, and can be excreted from the body by the kidneys (in the urine)
what is the nephron?
the functional unit in the kidney and there are around 1 M in every kidney
what is the nephrons job?
to filter the blood and remove the toxic urea - and also regulate the salt and water content of blood
5 main reasons for kidney failure
- excessive ? consumption
- drug ?
- bacteria ?
- diabetes
- high blood ?
alcohol, consumption, infections, pressure
steps in dialysis :
1. blood is removed from ? arm and enters the ? machine
2. an anticoagulant is added to the ?
3. waste ? into the dialysis ? across the semi ? membrane and sometimes useful ? diffuse into the ?
4. to ensure a high concentration ?, dialysis fluid and ? run countercurrent to each ?
5. concentration of ions and ? in ? fluid is closely monitored to ensure the correct ? ends up in the blood
6. after a couple ? dialysis fluid is drained and ?
patient’s, dialysis
blood
diffuses, fluid, permeable, substances, blood
gradient, blood
glucose, dialysis, concentration/amount
hours, destroyed
steps to kidney transplant?
1. kidney selection takes ?, and the donor is often a close ? as they normally have a better blood ? and tissue match
2. recipient abdomen is ? and their kidney is connected to : an artery and ? to ensure blood ?, the ureter so ? can be drained to the bladder
3. if the new ? is in place, the recipient needs to be on ? suppressants for the rest of their ?, which gives them a reduced immune ? and a greater risk of ?
place, relative, type
opened, vein, supply, urine
kidney, immuno, life, system, cancer
why is there quite a high chance of rejection of the transplanted kidney?
as it will be foreign to the body, as the immune system will make antibodies to attack kidney antigens - which may stop new kidney from functioning and cause harmful side effects
two ways of minimizing chance of rejection?
immunosuppressants - however these can cause infection and cancer
trying to find a tissue match between recipient and donor
FSH - where is it produced, what does it do and how does it interact with other hormones?
pituitary gland, maturation of eggs, stimulates oestrogen secretion, but is inhibited oestrogen and progesterone
LH - where is it produced, what does it do and how does it interact with other hormones?
pituitary gland, controls ovulation, is stimulated by oestrogen and inhibited by progesterone
Oestrogen - where is it produced, what does it do and how does it interact with other hormones?
ovary tissues, causes uterine lining to grow, stimulated by FSH, inhibits FSH and stimulates LH
Progesterone - where is it produced, what does it do and how does it interact with other hormones?
Follicle, maintains uterine lining, is stimulated by LH (due to the empty egg follicle post ovulation) , inhibits FSH and LH
3 main pros of dialysis?
- reverse symptoms (of chronic kidney disease)
- life saving treatment
- treat complications - (such as lethargy, loss of appetite/ weight and fluid retentions) of kidney failure
3 main cons of dialysis?
- have to have a restricted diet - for example a low protein diet and can’t have some fluids
- it can be very time consuming and expensive
- it’s an intermittent treatment but can still last to up to 6 hours
3 main pros of kidney transplant?
- gives patients with end stage renal failure better chance of survival - and means they are less likely to be admitted to hospital
- reduces likelihood of complications like bone disease
- don’t have restrictions from dialysis
3 main cons of kidney transplant?
- significant and potentially very dangerous operation
- have to take immunosuppressants for life (as well as side effects for these)
- hard to find a match for both blood type and tissues
why may some women be prescribed fertility drugs?
to stimulate ?, due to some women having too low ? levels to promote egg ? so they can’t ovulate or ? naturally
ovulation, LH, maturations, conceive
The NHS recommends seeing a GP after trying and with no successful pregnancy after how long ? (and how long if the woman is over 35)
1 year, or six months
what are the two main medicines you can take to NATURALLY stimulate your body to make FSH and LH?
clomiphene - which stimulates the two pituitary gland hormones
tamoxifen - an alternative to clomiphene which stimulates ovulation
What two medicines can a woman take which are UNNATURAL and which instead mimic the effects of LH and FSH?
GONAL - f : which contains follitropin alpha which mimics the effects of FSH
menotropins : range of drugs containing both LH and FSH
what is the alternative to medication for pregnancy? (and what does it stand for and mean)
IVF - in vitro fertilisation - fusion of gametes in glass
what happens in IVF?
eggs are collected from ovary and fertilized with sperm from the father then implanted back into the uterus
when is IVF more likely to be successful? (5 examples)
if the woman has previously been pregnant, are aged below 35, BMI between the range of 19-30, has a low caffein intake and is a non smoker
how many of embryos produced by IVF have an incorrect number of chromosomes and who are more likely to have these egg cells/ embryos?
around half, and normally older women are more likely
what removed cells from the embryo to test for chromosomal abnormalities before implantation?
PGT - A
Over ? million IVF cycles have taken place in the ? since 1981, which resulted in the birth of ? babies
1.2, UK, 390,000
In England what percentage of IVF cycles are funded by the NHS? (and what is the cost of an IVF package)
25%, around £5,000
Two scientific issues surrounding the use of IVF?
- risk of miscarriage
- multiple births (like quadruplets)
Three ethical issues surrounding the use of IVF?
- embryos are discarded (could be classed as killing)
- stem cells are kept in freezers which can be unethical and expensive
- separating sex from reproduction isn’t right - view of some religions
Three social issues surrounding the use of IVF?
- could have old parents who die early before child could grow up - leading to being put in an orphanage/ foster parents, loss of childhood
- might find it hard to raise kids if they’re older or not be able to support them
- multiple births
Three economic issues surrounding the use of IVF?
- can be expensive to keep in freezers
- multiple births - may not be able to support them
- £5,000 for one IVF cycle and people may not be able to buy another one if the first was unsuccessful
Three emotional issues surrounding the use of IVF?
- stress from involuntary childlessness, so even more stress and distress from IVF can lead to bad mental health
- stress from less than a 33% chance of successful live births
- may be health issues associated with multiple births - very distressing!!!
3 negative facts of IVF
- single babies born from ? are more likely to be ? or low birth ?
- embryos which are not ? of are frozen for future ? are destroyed
- as the woman’s age ?, so does the risk of ?
- IVF, premature, weight
- implanted, use
- increases, miscarriage
what does the combined pill do and how effective is it? plus pros and cons
inhibits FSH secretion (with oestrogen and progesterone) so no maturation of eggs, 99%
pros - reduces bleeding and pain
cons - vomiting or diarrhoea can make it less effective
what does the mini pill do and how effective is it, plus pros and cons?
inhibits secretion of pituitary hormones, (with progesterone), thickens cervical mucus to make it harder for sperm tk reach, over 99%,
can be used by over 35, smokers or breastfeeding women, but same negatives as combined pill
what does the contraceptive implant/ patch do and how effective is it, plus pros and cons?
patch contains oestrogen and progesterone, implant inserted under skin for 3 years - stops FSH secretion, over 99%,
patch can improve bleeding and periods and make it less painful, but can cause irritation
implant - can be used for 3 years, but requires small procedure to place and remove it
what does the female/male condom do and how effective is it, plus pros and cons?
female - lines vagina and covers area outside stopping sperm - 95%, male - covers penis - stop sperm from escaping - 98%.
f + m Pros - best way to protect against STIs
f - cons - not as widely available, m - could slip off or split
what does the diaphragm/ cap with spermicide do and how effective is it, plus pros and cons?
rubber device pit into vaguna to cover cervix with spermicide to prevent sperm from reaching, 92-96%, pros - can be put in whenever before sex, cons - extra spermicide is needed if you have sex again plus is interruptive
what does the intrauterine device do and how effective is it, plus pros and cons?
small plastic and copper device put into uterus , over 99%, pros - can stay in 5-10 years or earlier if needed, cons - periods may be heavier larger or more painful
what is tubal ligation?
sterilisation of females - when the fallopians tubes are cut or tied preventing eggs from reaching the uterus
what is vasectomy?
sterilisation do makes - when the sperm ducts are cut or tied - preventing sperm from travelling from the testes
