FINAL REVIEW CHAPTER Flashcards
FINAL REVIEW CHAPTER
___________ is the study of internal and external structures and the physical relationships among body parts
anatomy
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___________ is the study of how living organisms perform vital functions.
physiology
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all specific functions are performed by
specific structures
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___________ is the condition in which body functions, fluids, and other factors of the internal environment are maintained at levels suitable to support life
homeostasis
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___________ is a corrective mechanism involving an action that directly opposes a variation from normal limits
negative feedback
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in ___________ a stimulus produces a response that exaggerates the stimulus, creating a ___________ loop
positive feedback
positive feedback loop
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___________ means to lie or be placed with the anterior surface down (on belly)
prone
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___________ means to lie or be placed with the anterior surface facing up (on back)
supine
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___________: a structure above another
superior
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___________: a structure below another
inferior
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___________: closer to the head
cephalic
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___________: closer to the tail
caudal
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___________: the front of the body
anterior
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___________: the back of the body
posterior
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___________: toward the belly
ventral
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___________: toward the back, synonymous w/posterior
dorsal
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___________: closer to the point of attachment to the body than another structure
proximal
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___________: farther from the point of attachment to the body than another structure
distal
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___________: away from the midline of the body
lateral
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___________: toward the midline of the body
medial
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___________: toward or on the surface
superficial
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___________: away from the surface, internal
deep
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what are the 3 planes of the body
frontal
sagittal
transverse
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what is another name for frontal plane
coronal
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2 main cavities
dorsal
ventral
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what cavities does the dorsal cavity contain
cranial
spinal
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what divides the ventral cavity
diaphragm
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what is the ventral cavity divided into
thoracic
abdominopelvic
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what does the thoracic cavity contain
pleural cavities
pericardial cavity
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what does the pleural cavity contain
lungs
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what does the pericardial cavity contain
heart
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what does the abdominopelvic cavity contain
abdominal cavity
pelvic cavity
peritoneal cavity
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___________ is the science that looks at the structure of matter
chemistry
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___________ is anything that takes up space and has mass
matter
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___________: are the smallest stable units of matter
atoms
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atoms are composed of
subatomic particles
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what are the 3 subatomic particles in atom
protons
neutron
electron
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proton has ___________ charge
positive
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neutron has ___________ charge
no
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electron has ___________ charge
negative
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___________: is the number of protons in an atom
atomic number
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what are the types of chemical bonds
ionic
covalent
hydrogen
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___________ us a bond formed by attraction of opposite charges
ionic
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___________ bond involves sharing of electrons
covalent
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___________ bond is a weak bond involving hydrogen bonding with another atom/molecule
hydrogen
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___________ is the energy of motion or doing work
kinetic
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___________ is energy that has the potential to do work (stored energy)
potential
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what are 3 types of reactions that occur
decomposition
synthesis
exchange
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___________ breaks down a molecule into smaller fragments
decomposition
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___________ reaction that assembles larger molecules from smaller components
synthesis
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___________ is the shuffling around of parts of the molecules to form a new compound
exchange
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___________ is building up molecules
anabolism
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___________ is breaking down molecules
catabolism
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___________ lower the activation energy
enzymes
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___________ means water loving
hydrophilic
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___________ means water fearing
hydrophobic
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things that are ___________ are hydrophilic
polar
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things that are ___________ are hydrophobic
non-polar
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what creates a solution
solutes
solvent
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ph scale measures
concentration H+
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high ph are called
acids
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low ph are called
basic or alkaline
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organic compounds all contain
carbon
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organic compounds /carbon bonds
covalently 4 times
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4 examples of organic macromolecules
carbohydrates
lipids
proteins
nucleic acids
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___________ are chains of monosaccharides
carbohydrates
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monosaccharides provide the body with
energy
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example of monosaccharid
glucose
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what is formula of glucose
C6H12O6
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lipids are ___________, ___________, ands ___________ and a subcategory called
fats
waxes
oils
steroids
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lipids are ___________, ___________, ___________ chains
triglycerides
glycerol
3 fatty acid (FA)
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if the fatty acid chain has a double bond (lipids) it is
unsaturated
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if the fatty acid chain in a lipid doesn’t have double bond it is
saturated
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functions of lipids include
energy storage
insulation
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___________ is most abundant organic compound in body
proteins
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proteins contain a ___________ group and are varied in size
nitrogenous
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proteins are chains of ___________ primarily
amino acids
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protein amino acids may become
alpha helices
beta sheets
globular
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nucleic acids include
DNA
RNA
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DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid
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RNA
ribonucleic acid
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types of RNA
messenger mRNA
transfer tRNA
ribosomal rRNA
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nucleic acids are chains of ___________
nucleotides
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nucleotides have ___________ bases
nitrogenous
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what are the nitrogenous bases
adenine (A)
cytosine (C)
guanine (G)
thymine (T)
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what is the replacement of T nitrogenous base on RNA
uracil (U)
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function of nucleic acids include
storage of genes
peptide/protein synthesis
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Genes mostly contain code for
synthesis of protien
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in ___________, a sequence of 3 nitrogenous bases on the DNS is matched by the mRNA
transcription
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in ___________ the mRNA is matched by the tRNA
translation
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DNA in transcription is called
triplet
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mRNA in transcription is called
codon
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tRNA in translation is called
anticodon
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___________ is the high energy molecule for cells
adenosine triphoshate (ATP)
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2 classes of cells in human body
somatic
gametic
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what are somatic cells
body cells
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what are gametic cells
sex cells
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the cell membrane is a ___________ bilayer
phosopholipid
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the hydrophilic heads of the cell membrane face the
membrane surface
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___________ are embedded in the cell membrane
proteins
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the carbohydrate end of the phosopholipid bilayer extends out beyond the cell membrane forming a
glycocalyx
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cell membranes are ___________ permeable
selectively
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___________ is the movement of material from an area of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration
diffusion
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___________ is the net diffusion of water
osmosis
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___________ requires ATP to move material against the gradient
active transportation
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___________ occurs by diffusion
passive transportation
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___________ is passive transport of molecules across a membrane by carrier proteins
facilitated diffusion
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___________ importing into the cell
endocytosis
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___________ taking in little bits of water
pinocytosis
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___________ taking in debris
phagocytosis
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___________ exporting outside the cell
exocytosis
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if a rbc is in an isotonic solution it does what
maintain its shape
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if a rbc is in hypotonic solution
blows up
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___________ destroy cell
lyse
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if rbc is in hypertonic solution it will
crenate (shrivel/prune)
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___________ is the materail that is inside the cell membrane and surrounding the nucleus
cytoplasm
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___________ is the intracelluar fluid that contains dissolved ions and soluble and insoluble proteins
cytosol
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___________ are isolated from cytosol by their ___________
membranous organelles
membranes
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___________ is the control center of the cell
nucleus
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what does nucleus contain
genetic info
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DNA forms a ___________
chromatid
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the chromatid is joined by a ___________
centromere
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the centromere is surrounded by a protein complex called
kineochore
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function of cytoskeleton
strength and support
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function of microvilli
increase surface are to facilitate absorption
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function of centrioles
essential for movement of chromosomes during cell division
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function of cilia
movement of material over cell surface
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function of flagella
propel cell
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function of ribosomes
protein synthesis
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function of endoplastmic reticulum
synthesis of secretory products
intracellular storage and transport
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function of golgi apparatus
storage, alteration, and packaging of secretory products and lysosomal enzymes
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function of lysosomes
intracellular removal of damaged organelles or pathogens
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function of peroxisomes
catabolism of fats and other organic compounds
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function of mitochondria
produces 95% of the ATP required by the cell
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___________ is the production of RNA from DNA
transcription
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___________ is the formation of a linear chain of amino acids by using the info that is contained on mRNA strand
translation
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where does translation occur
ribosome
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how many stages to mitosis
4
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what are the stages of mitosis
prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase
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what occurs in prophase
chromosomes form
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what occurs in metaphase
chromosomes line up in the middle
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what occurs in anaphase
chromosomes separate
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what occurs in telophase
cell membrane forms cleavage furrow
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___________ is when the cells divide
cytokinesis
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what is the resting phase of mitosis called
interphase
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what stage is DNA synthesized
S
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order of cell division
G0 G1 S G2 M (mitosis)
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cells combining to have same functions form
tissue
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___________ study of tissue
histology
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4 types of tissue found in human organism
epithelial
connective
muscle
neural
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epithelial tissue is classified by
shape and number of layers
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shapes of epithelial tissues
squamous
cuboidal
columnar
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types of number of layers in epithelial tissues
simple (1 layer)
stratified (more than 1)
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___________ means secretions (hormones) released into interstitial fluid and blood
endocrine
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___________ means the secretions are released inot the skin or other epithelial surfaces
exocrine
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glandular secretions include
holocrine
apocrine
merocrine
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holocrine means
whole cells
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apocrine means
top/apex of cells
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merocrine means
exocytosis
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connective tissue includes
bone
fat
blood
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3 types of fibers
collagen
elastic
reticular
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___________ secrete collagen
fibroblasts
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___________ is the fat tissue
adipose
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___________ store fat
adipocytes
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reticular tissue is found where
spleen and liver
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dense connective tissue is fibrous tissue that contains dense amounts of
collagen fibers
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dense connective tissues form ___________ and ___________ of the skeletal system
tendons
ligaments
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fluid connective tissue includes
blood
lymph
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the formed elements of the blood include
RBC
WBC
platelets
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RBC are called
erythrocytes
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WBC are called
leukocytes
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platelets are sometimes called
thrombocytes
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RBC account for ___________ % of the volume of blood
50%
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what is function of RBC
transport oxygen
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___________ is the watery matrix of the blood
plasma
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WBC function
immune (defense)
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Platelets are responsible for
blood clotting
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___________ is a matrix of a firm gel that is made up of polysaccharides, chondroitin sulfate
cartilage
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cartilage is ___________ (blood supply…)
avascular
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types of cartilage
hyaline cartilage
elastic cartilage
fibrocartilage
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___________ is made up of a mixture of calcium phosophate, calcium carbonate, and collagen
bone
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cartilage cells are called
chondrocytes
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chondrocytes are found in
lacunae
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bone cells are called
osteocytes
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osteocytes are found in the
lacunae
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___________ are long passageways in the matrix of bone
canaliculi
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bone surface is surrounded by
periosteum
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membranes include
mucous
serous
cutaneous
synovial
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3 types of muscle tissue
skeletal
cardiac
smooth
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skeletal muscle attaches
bone to bone
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skeletal muscle causes
movement
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skeletal muscles are ___________ movement
voluntary
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cardiac muscle is only found in
heart
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cardiac muscles can’t
divide
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why can’t cardiac muscle cells not divide
lack satellite cells needed for regeneration
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cardiac muscle is regulated by
pacemaker cells
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cardiac muscle is ___________ movement
involuntary
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smooth muscle is found in the walls of
blood vessels
around hollow organs
in layers of the respiratory tract
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smooth muscles are nucleated but are ___________ control
involuntary
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neural tissue is specialized to conduct
electrical impulses
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___________ are the longest cells in the body
neurons
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what is 1st phase when tissue has been damaged
inflammation
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signs of inflammation
swelling
redness
warmth
pain
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the two cutaneous layers
epidermis
dermis
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subcutaneous layer also called
hypodermis
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layer is called (skin)
strata
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epidermis has up to ___________ strata
5
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order of strata from superficial to deep
corneum lucidum granulosum spinosum germinativum (basale)
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strata lucidum is only found in
thick skin (palms/soles)
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skin cells are called
keratinocytes
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keratinocytes produce
keratin
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keratin is also found in
hair and nails
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blood flow to skin give it a ___________ color
reddish
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lack of blood flow to skin gives it a ___________ color
blueish
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amount of ___________ skin orange color
carotene
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___________ would make skin yellow/jaundice
liver bilirubin
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brown/black skin comes from
melanin
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melanin is secreted by
melanocytes
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functions of skin
prevents entry microorganisms
acts as permeability barrier
provides protection against abrasion and UV light
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where does Vit D enter body
UV rays on skin
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Vit D travels from skin to
kidneys
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in the kidneys Vit D is covnerted to
calcitrol
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what is calcitrol needed for
normal absorption of calcium in the intestine
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what is sign for calcium
Ca2+
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skin contains receptors for
pain
touch
temperature (hot/cold)
pressure
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skin receptors allow for
proper response to environment
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skin glands eliminate small amounts of
waste
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are skin glands important in excretion
no
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function of sweating
cools you off
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lines on hands are formed how
pattern of collagen and elastic fiber bundles
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the ___________ stabilizes the skin’s position against underlyinjg organs and tissues
hypodermis
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where is fat stored in skin
hypodermis
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glands include
sebaceous
sweat
mammary
ceruminous
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where are sebaceous glands
hair follicles
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sweat glands include
apocrine and merocrine
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what does cerumious glands produce
ear wax
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“goose bumps” are caused by the ___________ muscle
arrector pili
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bone categories include
long short flat irregular sesamoid sutural (Wormian)
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structure of long bone includes
diaphysis
epiphysis
metaphysis
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neck of bone
metaphysis
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shaft of bone
diaphysis
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head of bone
epiphysis
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elongation of bone occurs where
epiphyseal plate
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where two bones articulate ___________ is found
articular cartilage
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the medullary cavity is found where
bone shaft
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what is located in medullary cavity
marrow
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what surrounds the medullary cavity
endosteum
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yellow marrow =
lipid storage
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red marrow =
blood cell production
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outside of the bone has a thin tissue layer called
peristeum
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2 types of bone
compact (dense)
spongy
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spongy bone containes
trabeculae
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bone matrix consists of
hydroxyapatite crystals
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hydroxyapatite crystals from from ___________ interacting with ___________
calcium phosophate
calcium hydroxide
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mature bone cells
osteocytes
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osteocytes occupy a
lacuna
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___________ are formed from lacuna sandiched between the lamellae
osteon
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___________ are little canals connecting the lacunae
canaliculi
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___________ make the bone
osteoblasts
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___________ secrete acid to break the bone down
osteoclasts
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bone formation
ossification
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2 types of ossification occurs
intramembranous
endochondral
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intramembranous bone growth occurs from
fibrous tissue
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endochondral bone growth occurs from
cartilage
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the hormone ___________ is released from the thyroid to cause osteoblasts to make bone
calcitonin
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the hormone ___________ is released from the parathyroids causing the osetoclasts to break bone
PTH
parathyroid hormone
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which hormone lowers blood calcium
calcitonin
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which hormone increases blood calcium
PTH
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which hormone inhibits osetoclasts
calcitonin
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which hormone inhibits osteoblasts
PTH
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when a bone is fractured part of the healing process is the formation of
callus
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bone projection or bump
process
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bone extention of bone making an angle
ramus
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bone large, round projection
trochanter
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bone smaller, rough projection
tuberosity
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bone a small rounded projection
tubercle
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bone prominent ridge
crest
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bone a low ridge
line
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bone pointed process
spine
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axial skeleton consists of
skull
vertebral column
thoracic cage
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how many bones in skull
28
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6 auditory ossicles
2 each:
malleus
incus
stapes
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where are auditory occicles located
inside temporal bone
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what protects the brain
cranial vault aka braincase
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bones that cranial vault includes
parietal(2) frontal temporal(2) occipital sphenoid ethmoid
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how many facial bones
14
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function of facial bones
protect sensory organs
muscle attachment sites
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facial bones
maxilla 2 mandible zygomatic 2 palatine 2 nasal 2 lacrimal 2 vomer inferior nasal concha 2
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the mandible and maxilla possess ___________ with sockets for the attachment of the teeth
alveolar processes
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what is attachment site for throat and tongue muscles
hyoid bone
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where is hyoid bone located
“floats” in the neck
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sutures of the skull
lambdoidal
squamous
sagittal
coronal
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paranasal sinuses include
frontal
ethmoidal
sphenoidal
maxillary
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location of crista galli
ethmoid
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location of sella turcica
sphenoid
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location of occipital condyle
occipital
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location of cribriform
ethmoid
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location of foramen magnum
occipital
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what is located where medulla oblongata meets spinal chord to vertebral column
foramen magnum
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sections of vertebral column
cervical thoracic lumbar sacral coccygeal
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how many cervical vertebrae
7
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how many thoracic vertebrae
12
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how many lumbar vertebrae
5
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how many sacral vertebrae
1
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C1 is called
atlas
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C2 is called
axis
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atlas pivots on the ___________ of axis
dens
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the thoracic cage consists of
ribs
costal cartilages
sternum
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sternum is made up of
manubrium
body
xyphoid process
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rib cage has ___________ true pairs of ribs
7
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rib cage has ___________ false ribs
5
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how many pairs of false ribs are floating
2
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appendicular skeleton consists of
upper and lower limbs
pectoral and pelvic girdle
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pectoral girdle consists of
scapula
clavicles
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scapula consists of
coracoid process
acromion
spine
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the arm bones include
humerus
radius
ulna
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how many carpal bones
8
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what are carpal bones (2 rows)
triquetrm, pisiform, capitate, hamate
lunate, scaphoid, trapezoid, trapzium
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a ___________ stretches across the wrist from the tubercle of the trapezium to the hook of the hamate
ligament
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the distal row of carps bones articulate with the ___________
metacarpals
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the ___________ are the digital bones
phalanges
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thumb
pollex
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bones of the pelvic girdle
coxa
sacrum
coccyx
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the coca include
fusion of ilium
ischim
pubis
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thigh contains
femur
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leg contains
tibia
fibula
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kneecap
patella
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foot contains ___________ bones
7 tarsal
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tarsal bones
talus calcaneus cuboid lateral cuneiform navicular intermediate cuneiform medial cuneiform
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big toe
hallux
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when standing most weight is transferred to ___________ in the foot
calcaneus
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when at rest the weight in foot is transferred to
metatarsals
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joints are classified according to the
major connective tissue type that binds the bones together
and whether or not there is fluid-filled joint capsule
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joint classifications
diathrotic
amphiarthrotic
synarthrotic
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diathrotic joint/example
freely moveable
synovial
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amphiarthrotic joint/example
partly moveable
pubic symphysis
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joints can also be classified by
function
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fibrous joints include
sutures-synostosis
syndesmosis
gomphosis
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cartilaginous joints include
synchondrosis
symphysis
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synovial joints include
monaxial
biaxial
multaxial
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synovial joints include these functions
plane(gliding) saddle hinge pivot ball and socket ellipsoidal
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example saddle joint
carpometacarpal joint of thumb
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example hinge joint
elbow, knee
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example pivot joint
neck
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example ball and socket joint
hip
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joints may contain ___________, ___________ , ___________ , and ___________
joint capsule
synovial membrane
articular disks & cartilage
bursae
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synovial membrane contains
synovial fluide
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bursae are
sacs for additional cushioning
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movement pairs (8)
flexion/extension abduction/adduction rotation pronation/supination circumduction elevation/depression protraction/retraction inversion/eversion
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ligaments are generally named for
location
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articular cartilage is often at the end of the
bone
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what are ligaments of knee
ACL anterior cruciate ligament
MCL medial collateral ligament
PCL posterior cruciate ligament
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muscle tissue has 3 layers connective tissue
epimysium
perimysium
endomysium
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epimysium surrounds
the muscle
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perimysium surrounds
fascicles
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endomysium surrounds
fibers
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end of muscle fiber comes together to form
tendon
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another name for tendon
aponeurosis
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muscle cells are
mulitnucleated
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muscle cells contain
sarcolemma
sarcoplasm
sarcoplasmic reticulum
sacromere
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muscle cell membrane is
sarcolemma
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___________ are bundles of myofilaments
myofibrils
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actin is
thin
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myosin is
thick
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___________ are units of myofilaments
sarcomere
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actin includes
F-actin
G-actin
tropomyosin
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myosin includes
head
tail
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muscle contraction starts with an impulse sent from the
motor cortex
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muscle contraction impulse leaves the motor cortex via the
corticospinal tract
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muscle contraction impulse continues to the peripheral nerve and then to the
neuromuscular junction
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muscle contraction: ___________ is released into the synaptic cleft (gap)
Ach
Acetylocholine
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the muscle contraction continues to travel down the T (transverse) tubules and causes the SR to release
calcium
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muscle contraction - myosin head ratchets the thin filaments, causing the sliding of the
thin filaments (actin)
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muscle contraction: calcium binds to ___________ on the actin filament causing it to change shape and expose active biding site
troponin
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___________ binds to the binding site
myosin head
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___________ attaches to the myosin head, the head detaches, and goes to the next binding site
ATP
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muscle contraction concept
all or nothing
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muslce fiber contraction = on = means produces same amount of ___________ each time
tension
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___________ is a single contraction relaxation stimulus in a muscle fiber
twitch
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___________ is sustained stimulation to a muscle with no relaxation period involved
tetanus
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___________ is when muscle contraction tension rises in steps
treppe
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muscle contractions isotonically
change in muscle length
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muscle contractions isometrically
no change in length
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___________ can result from depletion of ATP reserves and the combined build up of lactic acid in the muscle tissues
muscle fatigue
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___________ is the amount of oxygen consumed post exercise, and the amount needed to restore pre-exertion conditions in the muscle tissue
oxygen debt
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large amounts of ___________ is produced by muscular activity
heat
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the heat from muscle activity is generated by the ___________ process of the breakdown of ___________
catabolic
gluose for ATP
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fast twitch muscles are what color
white
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fast twitch muscles are found where
eyes
hands
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slow twitch muscles are found where
calf
back
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cardiac muscle tissue is ___________ , which s nucleated
involuntary striated muscle
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cardiac muscle cells contain cell-to-cell junctions called
intercalated discs
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what do intercalated discs create
electrical connection between cardiac cells
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smooth muscle is different from skeletal and cardiac fibers in that it is
non-striated
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smooth muscle is involved with
peristalsis = moving food down intestinal tract
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what is basic muscle concept
muscle contracts - a force acts on bones/tissue to create motion
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fixed end of the muscle is called
origin
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moveable end of muscle is called
insertion
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body of muscle between origin and insertion is called
belly
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what attaches muscle to bone
tendon
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sheet-like flat tendon is called
aponeurosis
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aponeurosis is located where
muscles attach to large flat regions of the body
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main/prime mover muscle
agonist
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agonist muscle is supported by
synergists
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agonist muscle is opposed by
antagonists
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muscles are named according to
size shape direction location number of heads action/function
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muscle size words
maximus minimus brevis major minor
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muscle shape words
triangular trapezoid saw-toothed rhomboid circular-orbicularis
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4 basic muscle shapes
pennate
parallel
convergent
circular
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___________ classes of levers
3
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first class lever
R-F-AF
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2nd class lever
F-R-AF
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3rd class lever
F-AF-R
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___________ is the basic functional unit of the nervous system
neuron
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___________ separate the neurons
glial cells
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another name for glial cells
neuroglia
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functions of glial cells (4)
separate neurons
protect neurons
provide framework of support for neural tissue
act as phagocytes
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nervous system has ___________ divisions
2
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what are the 2 divisions of nervous system
central nervous system
peripheral nervous system
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CNS includes
brain and spinal cord
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PNS includes
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
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the ANS includes
all the nervous tissue that is outside the CNS
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the PNS is divided into the
afferent division
efferent division
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___________ division brings info from the body to the CNS
afferent
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___________ division carries info from the CNS to the periphery or the body
efferent
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the efferent division consists of
somatic division
autonomic division
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somatic division controls
skeletal muscle tissue
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autonomic division controls
smooth muscle
cardiac muscle
glandular tissues
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cell body of neuron
perikaryon
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the perikaryon of the neuron contains ___________ and ___________
nucleus
organelles
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the organelles of the perikaryon of the neuron do what
provide energy
synthesize the neurotransmitters
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perikaryon’s neurotransmitters are required for
cell-to-cell communication in the NS
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___________ are regions of the neuron that contain rough endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes
Nissl bodies
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most neurons lack ___________ and therefore can’t divide
centrioles
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other parts of neuron (3)
dendrites
axons
axon hillock
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what does dendrites contain
dendritic spines
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___________ may be found on the axons that branch off
collaterals
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collaterals allow one neuron to ___________ with surrounding neurons
communicate
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end of the axon is composed of
teledendria
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___________ is a site where neural communication occurs
synapse
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synapse involves
neurotransmitters
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___________ will release neurotransmitter substance to direct the response of the post synaptic cell
presynaptic neuron
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the post synaptic cell can be
neuron or any other type of cell like muscle or glandular
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___________ is found when the postsynaptic cell is a neuron
synaptic knob
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each synaptic knob contains
organelles
vesicles
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the organelles and vesicles of synaptic knob contain
neurotransmitter substances
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function of the synaptic knob
reabsorb the neurotransmitter left over form the interaction between neurons
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neuron structural classifications (4)
anaxonic
bipolar
unipolar
multipolar
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neuron functional classifications (3)
sensory
motor
interneuron
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glia in CNS include (4)
ependymal
astrocytes
oligodendrocytes
microglia
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___________ monitor the CSF
ependymal
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___________ form BBB, are the largest and most abundant glia, ion regulation
astrocytes
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___________ make myelin
oligodendrocytes
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___________ are phagocytes
microglia
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___________ are contained in the PNS
satellite cells
Schwann cells
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satellite cells (amphicytes) function
regulation
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Schwann cells (neurolemma) function
make myelin
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resting membrane potential has a ___________ charge
-70mv
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___________ occurs of the cell membrane when increased sodium ion enters the cell making more positive and closer to 0mv
depolarization
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when cell membrane depolarization occurs, an ___________ will be generated
action potential
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during depolarization sodium channels are ___________ and the activation of ___________ channels occurs
deactivated
K+
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___________ occurs when the cell becomes more negative by K+ ions flowing in
hyperpolarization
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the Na+/K+ pump uses ___________ to return ions to their respective gradients
active transport
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___________ is the time between the action potential and the return to membrane resting potential, an action potential cannot be reinitiated during this time
refractory period
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membrane resting potential has K+ ion concentration higher
intracellularly
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membrane resting potential has Na+ ion concentration higher
extracellularly
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if a stimulus brings the cell membrane to threshold an action potential will be generated where
along whole membrane
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two types of action potential propagation
continuous propagation
salutatory propagation
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___________ propagation is action potential moving along an unmyelinated axons
continuous
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___________ propagation is leaping of action potential from node to node on myelinated axon
salutatory
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nodes on axon on unmyelinated axons
Ranvier
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neurotransmitters include (7)
acetylcholine norepinephrine dopamine seratonin Gamma aminobutyric acid nitric oxide carbon monoxide
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acetylcholine associated with
neuromuscular junctions
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norepinephrine assoc with
brain, ANS
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dopamine assoc with
CNS
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serotonin assoc with
CNS
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Gamma aminobutyric acid assoc with
GABA-inhibitory CNS
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nitric oxide assoc with
smooth muscle
blood vessels in the PNS
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carbon monoxied assoc with (neurotransmitter)
synaptic knobs in the brain
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meuromodulators include opioids classfified as
endorphins
enkephalons
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___________ is the combination of two or more EPSPs to generate an action potential
summation
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in presynaptic inhibition, ___________ released at the axon-to-axon synapse will inhibit the opening of the ___________ channels
GABA
calcium
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___________ is the spread of info from one neuron to several neurons, or from one pool to several pools
divergence
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___________ is when several neurons synapse on the same postsynaptic neuron
convergence
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the the PNS cell bodies are called
ganglia
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in the PNS axons are bundled together to form
nerves
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the nerves in the PNS are connected to
spinal cord
brain
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name of nerves connected to brain
cranial nerves
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in the CNS a collection of neurons or cell bodies with a common function are called
centers
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a nucleus is a center with a
anatomicl boundary
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CNS white matter contains bundles of
axons
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CNS white matter axons have common origins or destinations called
tracts
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tracts in the spinal cord form large groups called
columns
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the centers and tracts that link the brain with the rest of the body are called
pathways
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the spinal nerve is a mixture of
sensory and motor fibers
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there are ___________ pairs of spinal nerves coming off the spinal cord
31
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the gray matter of cord is greatest in sensory and motor in segments that deal with the
limbs
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expanded areas of spinal cord are found
cervical and lumbar regions
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end of spinal cord is shaped
tapered and conical
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end of spinal cord is called
filum terminale
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each spinal cord segment has a ___________ associated with it
dorsal root ganglia
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___________ is the cell body of the sensory neurons
dorsal root
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dorsal root carries info into the
spinal cord
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___________ is the motor neurons or output of the spinal cord
ventral root
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the spinal nerve is a mixture of
sensory and motor fibers
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___________ is a series of specialized membranes surrounding the spinal cord and brain
meninges
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3 layers of meninges
dura mater
arachnoid mater
pia mater
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dura mater is
outer layer meninges
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arachnoid mater contains
spinal CSF
middle layer
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pia mater is
inner most layer
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pia mater means
tender mother
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epidural space is located between
dura mater and
wall of the vertebral canal
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epidural space contains
loose connective tissue
blood vessels
adipose tissue
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posterior gray horns contain
sensory nuclei
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anterior gray horns contain
motor nuclei
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the white matter on each side of the spinal cord contains
myelinated axons
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the spinal cord white matter is organized into 3 regions
anterior
posterior
lateral
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around each nerve is a series of connective tissue layers
epineurium
perineurium
endoneurium
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___________ of the spinal nerve supplies sensory and motor function to the skin and muscles of the back
dorsal ramus
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___________ supplies the ventrolateral surface of the body and the structures in the body wall and lids (nerves)
ventral ramus
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___________ us specific region of the skin that is monitored by a single paid of spinal nerves
dermatome
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4 major nerve plexi of the NS
cervical
brachial
lumbar
sacral
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where is the phrenic nerve contains
cervical plexi
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where is the femoral nerve contained
lumbar plexi
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where is the sciatic nerve contained
sacral plexi
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path of reflexes travel from stimulus to spine via
afferent nerve
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reflexes leaves spine on
efferent nerve
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reflexes include
monosynaptic
polysnyaptic
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monosynaptic reflex example
stretch
postural
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polysynaptic reflex example
tendon
withdrawal
crossed extensor
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what is babinski reflex
big toe doral felx - other toes fan out - only seen in infants
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largest region of brain
cerebrum
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cerebrum is separated in paired
left/right hemisphere
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what separates cerebrum hemipsheres
longitudinal fissure
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what connects the cerebrum hemipsheres
corpus collusum
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what is the cerebrum superhighway
corpus collusum
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what is the corpus collusum made of
thick band of white matter
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what covers the cerebrum hemispheres
cortex
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cerebrum cortex has
ridges and depressions
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name of cerebrum cortex ridges
gyri
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name of cerebrum cortex depressions
sulci
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4 types of fibers (cranial- cerebrum)
association
commisural
projection
arcuate
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association fibers function
connect within same hemisphere
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commissural fiber function
connect between cerebral atmospheres
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projection fibers function
pass from cortex to spinal cord
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arcuate fibers function
communicate with individual gyri
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cranial lobes
frontal
parietal
temporal
occipital
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functions of frontal lobe
executive function/planning
motor functioning
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parietal lobe contains
primary sensory cortex
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name of parietal lobe primary sensory cortex
somatosensory
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temporal lobe contains
primary auditory cortex
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occipital lobe contains
primary visual cortex
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what separates the motor cortex from the sensory cortex
central sulcus
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where is the motor cortex
pre-central gyrus - frontal lobe
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where is the sensory cortex
post-central gyrus - parietal lobe
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2 area of speech are both in the ___________ hemisphere
left
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what are 2 areas dealing with speech
Wernicke’s area
Broca’s area
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location of Wernicke’s area
temporal lobe
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function of Wernicke’s area
comprehension/speech
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location of Broca’s area
frontal lobe
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___________ performs abstract intellectual functions such as predicting consequences of events or actions
prefrontal cortex
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___________ is responsible for language-based skills like reading, writing, speaking, analytical skills and math problems
left hemisphere
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___________ analyzes sensory information and relates the body to the sensory environment.
right hemisphere
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___________ contains the thalamus and hypothalamus
diencephalon
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function of thalamus
relay center
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functions of hypothalamus
many incl
temp control
hunger, thirst, and endocrine
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limbic system includes
amygdala
hippocampus
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function of limbic system
emotional states
short term memory
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4 ___________ in different regions of the brain
chambers/ventricles
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what circulates in the ventricles in brain
CSF
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function of CSF
cushion neural tissue
support the brain
transport nutrients, waste products, and chemical messengers
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CSF is formed by network of ___________ cells
ependymal
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name of the network of ependymal cells that form CSF
choroids plexus
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throughout the brain are ___________ which consist of generally gray areas taht do not contain myeline but contain cell bodies and/or unmyelinated axons
nuclei (basal nuclei)
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2nd largest structure in the brain
cerebellum
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cerebellum has paired
hemisphere
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what connects the cerebellum hemispheres
vermis
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when cerebellum is dissected you can see the
arbor vitae
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function of cerebellum
control and coordinate movement
balance
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brain stem consists of
mesencephalon
pons
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___________ is the mid-brain and functions include processing auditory and visual info
mesencephalon
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mesencephalon contains
substantia nigra
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substantia nigra releases
dopamine
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pons connects the ___________ to the ___________
brain stem
cerebellum
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pons contains
somatic motor control nuclei
some respiratory functions
medulla oblongata
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spinal cord connects to the brain is located at
medulla oblongata
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pons relays info via
decussation
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pons relays info from ___________ to the ___________
spinal cord
thalamus
