Final Flashcards
Anatomy
study of structure (morphology) of body part
Physiology
study functions of body parts and how they interact
Smallest organism that shows characteristics of life
Cell
Homeostasis
body’s ability to maintain a relatively stable environment
Examples of positive feedback
pregnancy, blood clotting
Example of negative feedback
Body temp - rises –> sweat glands produce sweat
Two major body cavities
Dorsal and ventral
What are the two parts of the dorsal cavity?
cranial cavity and spinal cavity (vertebral canal)
What are the two parts of the ventral cavity?
thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity
What organ(s) are in the cranial cavity?
Brain
What organ(s) are in the spinal cavity?
spinal cord
What organ(s) are in the abdominopelvic cavity?
stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, spleen, reproductive organs, bladder, rectum
What organ(s) are in the thoracic cavity?
lungs, heart, esophagus, trachea
What are the 11 body systems
- Integumentary
- Skeletal
- Muscular
- Nervous
- Endocrine
- Cardiovascular
- Lymphatic
- Digestive
- Respiratory
- Urinary
- Reproductive
Skeletal system - job and organs?
- bones, ligaments, cartilages
- supports and protects soft tissues, provides framework/attachment points, stores inorganic salts, houses tissues that produce blood cells
Integumentary system - job and organs?
- skin, hair, nails
- protects underlying tissues, helps regulate temp, senses lots of things, synthesizes certain products
Muscular system - job and organs?
- includes skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles
- provides body mvt and posture, major source of heat
Nervous system - job and organs?
- includes brain, spinal cord, nerves
- job is to get sensory info, analyze and decide response
- communication from cells through chemical signals called neurotransmitters
Endocrine system - job and organs?
- hypothalamus, pituitary, glands, and hormones
- Hormones affect group of cells called target cells; alters their metabolism
- Also regulates the body, but more long-term than short-term
Cardiovascular system - job and organs?
- heart, blood vessels, blood
- transportation - distributes O2, CO2, nutrients, hormones and removes wastes from cells
Lymphatic system - job and organs?
- immunity and fluid balance
- Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen
- Drains tissue fluid and returns to blood steam
- Use lymphocytes - type of white blood cells used to defend body against infection
Digestive system- job and organs?
- Receives, breaks down and absorbs nutrients, excretes waste
- Mouth, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas
Respiratory system - job and organs?
- Moves air in and out of lungs, exchanges O2, CO2 between blood and air
- Lungs, trachea, bronchi
Urinary system - job and organs?
- Job is to remove waste from blood and help to maintain water and electrolyte balance
- Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
- Produces, stores, and eliminates urine
Reproductive system - job and organs?
sex organs - produces gametes, reproduction
a body plane where you divide the right side from the left
sagittal
a body plan where you divide the front half (anterior) part of body from posterior part
frontal or coronal
a body plane where you divide horizontally
transverse
integumentary system
nervous system
lymphatic system
in which quadrant(s) is the liver?
RUQ and LUQ
in which quadrant(s) is the gallbladder?
RUQ
in which quadrant(s) are the kidneys?
all
in which quadrant(s) is the pancreas?
RUQ and LUQ
in which quadrant(s) is the duodenum?
RUQ
in which quadrant(s) is the stomach?
LUQ
in which quadrant(s) is the spleen?
LUQ
in which quadrant(s) is the appendix?
RLQ
in which quadrant(s) is the colon?
RLQ, LLQ
what is the function of the nucleus?
directs cell activities (ie growth, metabolism, reproduction)
3 parts of animal cells
- membrane (plasma membrane, outer wall)
- cytoplasm (holds organelles, downtown)
- nucleus (holds genetic material, control center)
What does nucleolus look like?
avocado pit
what is inside the nucleus?
DNA
what is the function of the mitochondria?
powerhouse of the cell - cellular respiration; ATP made from glucose and O2
What does the mitochondria look like?
Ribosomes are connected to
the endoplasmic reticulum
What does the endoplasmic reticulum look like?
what is the function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
protein synthesis and transport
what is the function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
lipid synthesis, detoxification, calcium storage
Which ER has ribosomes?
Rough
what is the function of ribosomes?
site of protein synthesis where amino acids made into polypeptide chains
What does the golgi apparatus look like?
What are three things the golgi apparatus does to proteins?
- modify
- package
- transport
What do lysosomes look like?
What are three functions of lysosomes?
Hungry hungry hippos!
- break down waste materials
- get rid of cellular debris
- break down foreign invaders
what are three functions of the cytoskeleton?
- structural support
- maintains shape of cell
- helps facilitate cell mvt
What are two functions of centrioles?
- Hold chromosomes in place during cell division
- Deliver chromosomes to new cell
Plasma membrane is made of a bilayer of ____
phospholipids
What are the two functions of the plasma membrane?
- cell to cell recognition, adhesion and communication
- customs - controls passage of materials in and out of cells
what are 7 main types of organelles?
- Ribosomes
- Endoplasmic reticulum
- Golgi apparatus
- Mitochondria
- Lysosomes
- Cytoskeleton
- Centrioles
Four major tissues in body
- Muscle
- Connective
- Epithelial
- Nervous
What are three functions of epithelial tissues
Three s’s (remember: snake skin!)
- Shield
- Secrete (and absorb)
- Sense
in which three places can epithelial tissues be found?
- covering body surfaces
- lining cavities/organs
- forming glands
What are four physical traits of epithelial tissues?
Onions
- LAYERS - have one or more layers of tightly-packed cells
- COMPACT - joined by junctions, provide good layer
- NO BLOOD - No blood vessels
- NERVES - Lots of nerves
in which two ways are epithelial tissues classified?
shape and arrangement
what are the three different types of shapes epithelial tissues can be?
squamous, cuboidal, columnar
what are the three types of ways epithelial tissue can be arranged?
simple, stratified, pseudostratified
Where is pseudostratified epithelial tissue?
Trachea
5 functions of connective tissues
Spiderwebs
- Structural support
- Bind structures together
- Fills space
- Insulate
- Transports materials
6 examples of connective tissues
- Bone
- cartilage
- ligaments
- tendons
- blood
- adipose tissue
What does connective tissue look like?
What are two main characteristics of connective tissue?
- have extracellular matrix
- have blood/blood vessels (except cartilage and tendons)
What is ECM?
content between connective tissue cells formed by ground substance and protein fibers
3 types of muscle tissue
Smooth, cardiac or skeletal
muscle tissue are made of long __ __ and specialized for ____
muscle fibers; specialized for contraction
what are the three function of skeletal muscle?
voluntary mvt
posture
heat generation
what is the function of cardiac muscle?
involuntary contraction of heart
what is the function of smooth muscle?
involuntary mvt of internal organs
what does nervous tissue do?
-conduct impulses that help control and coordinate body activities
-allows cognition
Skin’s two layers (and honorary layer)
Epidermis
Dermis
Subcutaneous/hypodermis
What type/shape of cells is the epidermis made of?
stratified squamous epithelium
How many layers does the epidermis usually have? How many does it have in thick skin?
4; 5
what type of epidermal layer is only in thick skin?
Stratum lucidum
what layer of the epidermis has blood vessels and acts as stem cells to create new cells?
stratum basale
which layer of the epidermis is the most superficial and only has flattened keratinized cells?
stratum corneum
which middle layer of the epidermis starts to form keratin?
stratum granulosum
in which layer of the epidermis to the cells start to flatten?
stratum spinosum
most of the epidermis does not have ____ and gets nourishment from the dermis
blood vessels
what glands exist in the dermis?
sweat and sebaceous
what five things are in the dermis
- connective tissue
- hair follicles
- glands
- nerves
- blood vessels
Another name of subcutaneous layer
hypodermis
three functions of hypodermis
Ics
- insulates body heat
- provides cushioning
- stores energy reserves
what is the hypodermis made of?
loose connective tissue and fat cells
4 functions of epidermis
BPDs
- waterproof barrier
- protects against pathogens
- synthesizes vitamin D
- skin tone/pigmentation
5 functions of dermis
TNsssssss
- supports epidermis
- structure and flexibility
- sensory receptors
- regulates temp
- nourishes epidermis
what do smooth muscle tissues look like?
what does cardiac muscle tissue look like?
which muscular types have striations?
skeletal and cardiac
where are skeletal muscles found?
attached to bones by tendons
what 3 things are smooth muscles regulated by?
- nervous system
- hormones
- local factors
what is the function of smooth muscles?
regulates organ functions
Trapezius
Pectoralis major
Latissmus dorsi
Rectus abdominis
Ab muscles
rectus abdominus
External abdominal oblique
erector spinae
Bicep brachii
Tricep brachii
shoulder cap muscle
deltoid
Brachialis
what are the four muscles of the quadriceps
Vastus lateralis, Rectus femoris, vastus intermedius, Vastus medialis
Rectus femoris
what are the three hamstring muscles?
Biceps femoris
Semitendinosus
Semimembranosus
Biceps femoris
Semitendinosus
Semimembranosus
Gastrocnemius
Medial side
Soleus
Lateral
Three functions of nervous system
- Sense/process
- Integrate
- Motor/Effect
What are the three layers of the meninges and where are they?
- dura matter (outermost - attached to skull)
- arachnoid matter
- pia matter (deepest - attached to brain)
Two types of nervous system and their body parts
- Central (CNS) - brain and spinal cord
- Peripheral (PNS) - cranial nerves and spinal nerves
Two subdivisions of PNS
Sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent)
Function of PNS
send sensory info to CNS and then commands from CNS to body
bundle of nerves that connects the two hemispheres of the cerebrum
corpus callosum
the _____ lobe houses motor areas for speech, judgement and problem-solving
frontal
this part of the brain is responsible for interpreting sensory input
parietal lobe (cerebrum)
the _____ lobe deals with memory, emotion, balance, and interprets sensory information from the ears
temporal
3 parts of brainstem from superior to inferior
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla oblongata
What is the primary function of the brainstem?
regulates visceral activities
two important parts of the diencephalon
thalamus and hypothalamus
this part of the brain sorts and directs most sensory info to the cerebral cortex
thalamus
What is the endocrine system’s main job?
maintain homeostasis
Master control system of endocrine system
Hypothalamus
What are the five main glands of the endocrine system?
- pituitary
- thyroid
- parathyroid
- adrenal
- pancreas
series of four glands on the posterior side of the thyroid
parathyroid
these glands are attached to the superior part of the kidney
Adrenal glands/superenal
where is the pancreas?
deep to the stomach
these six hormones get released from the anterior pituitary
- growth
- prolactin (PRL)
- thyroid-stimulating (TSH)
- adrenocorticotropic (ACTH)
- follicle-stimulating hormones (FSH)
- luteinizing hormone (LH)
these two hormones are stored in the posterior pituitary
Antidiuretic hormones (ADH), Oxytocin (OT)
this hormone stimulates cell division and speeds metabolism, and gets released due to chemicals in the blood
growth
this hormone promotes milk following birth
prolactin (PRL)
controls release of hormones from thyroid gland
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropin or TSH)
these hormones control the release of certain hormones from adrenal cortex
Adrenocorticotropic hormones (ACTH)
this hormone contributes to egg and sperm development
follicle-stimulating hormones (FSH)
this hormone releases eggs from the ovaries
luteinizing hormone (LH)
what are the three hormones active in the thyroid gland?
t3, t4 and calcitonin
this hormone is found in the thyroid and lowers blood levels for calcium and phosphate by promoting calcium deposition in bones
calcitonin
these hormones increase rate at which cells release energy from carbs, increase rate of protein synthesis, and stimulates breakdown of lipids/fat; they also determine the a person’s BMR
t3 and t4
the only hormone of note in the parathyroid
parathyroid hormone
Gets secreted in response to low blood calcium levels - promotes resorption of calcium from bone tissue (inhibits blasts), increases resorption of calcium in kidneys, stimulates excretion of phosphate, stimulates calcitriol in kidneys (increases calcium absorption from small intestine)
PTH (parathyroid hormone)
this hormone is the antagonist for ACTH
corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
this is the antagonist to the parathyroid hormone
calcitonin
the adrenal glands are composed of an outer ____ and an inner ___
adrenal cortex; medulla
what does the ADH hormone do?
regulates water balance via kidneys
which two hormones are found in the adrenal cortex?
cortisol and aldosterone
what does cortisol do?
regulates metabolism, immune responses and stress responses
what does aldosterone do?
regulates sodium and potassium levels which influences blood pressure
which two hormones are found in the adrenal medulla?
epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine
what do epinephrine and norepinephrine do?
sympathetic and parasympathetic impulses that influence heart rate, blood pressure, glucose levels
what two main hormones are found in the pancreas?
insulin and glucagon
what does insulin do?
lower blood glucose levels by stimulating cells to absorb it and stimulating storage of glucose and glycogen
what does glucagon do?
raises blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogen breakdown and glucose release from liver?
what is the antagonist to insulin?
glucagon
what is the anatomical name for red blood cells?
erythrocyte
two main parts of blood and their respective percentages
formed elements (45%), plasma (55%)
Three functions of blood
- TRANSPORT of nutrients, hormones, gasses and wastes
- MAINTAIN homeostasis via regulation of pH, temp and fluid balance
- PROTECTION via fighting infection and blood clots
three parts of formed elements and their percentages
- red blood cells (95.1%)
- white blood cells (.1%)
- platelets (4.8%)
what is the purpose of red blood cells?
gas transport
At a cellular level, what are platelets?
not complete cells; pieces of megakaryocytes, do not have nucleus
function of platelets
blood clotting
what are the two primary components of plasma and their respective percentages?
water - 92%
proteins - 7%
what are the six minor components of plasma?
Electric vehicles giving hella new world
electrolytes
waste
nutrients
vitamins
hormones
gasses
what are the three functions of plasma?
- transport nutrients and gasses
- regulate fluid and electrolyte balance
- maintain pH
the covering of the heart is called the
pericardium
two layers of the pericardium
fibrous and serous
what are the three parts of the serous pericardium from superficial to deep?
parietal pericardium
pericardial cavity
visceral pericardium
this layer of pericardium is also the outermost layer of the heart wall
visceral/epicardium
3 layers of heart wall from superficial to deep
- epicardium
- myocardium
- endocardium
what is the endocardium made of?
connective tissue and epithelium
these first branches of the aorta go back to the heart to supply it with blood
right and left coronary arteries
these drain deoxygenated blood from inside the heart into the coronary sinus, which empties into the right atrium
coronary veins
Cardiac cycle made of two alternating states, __ and __
systole; diastole
What is happening during the first heart sound?
Ventricular systole - AV valves close
What is happening during the second heart sound?
Semilunar valves close
3 parts of ECG
- P wave
- QRS complex
- T wave
In this section of an ECG, the atria depolarize
P wave
In this part of an ECG, the ventricles repolarize
T
O2-rich blood returns to left atrium via
pulmonary veins
pulmonary arteries have what type of blood?
O2-poor
what are the body’s two methods of fighting of pathogens?
innate and adaptive defenses
Innate defenses have ___ lines of defense
2
what are four example of mechanical barriers?
AKA boggy moat around castle
- skin
- hair
- mucus
- sweat
what are five examples of the body’s second line of defense?
- chemical barriers
- natural killer cells
- inflammation
- phagocytosis
- fever
what are the two types of adaptive defense?
cellular immune response and humoral immune response
innate defenses are ____ but not ___
fast; specific
adaptive defense are ___ but _____
slower; specific
what is the difference in approach between T and B cells when it comes to immune response?
T attack directly (bounty hunter), B produce antibodies, which then attack (generals)
What are the four main functions of the digestive system?
- mechanical digestion
- chemical digestion
- absorption
- propulsion and elimination
type of digestion breaks down large pieces of food into smaller
mechanical
type of digestion breaks chemical bonds and thereby breaks down large nutrients into smaller ones
chemical
in the digestive system, what is absorption?
nutrients passing from the digestive tract into the bloodstream
enzyme that begins to break down starch in saliva
amylase
what is the function of the stomach?
stores and mixes food with gastric juice
the stomach begins the digestion of _____ through ____ and ____
proteins; hydrochloric acid; pepsin
what is the function of the small intestine?
mixes food with bile and pancreatic juice and is main site of nutrient absorption
what are the three sections of the small intestine?
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
what is the function of the large intestine?
absorbs water and vitamins and pushes stool out of body
what are four functions of the liver?
- produces bile for digestion
- detoxifies blood
- synthesizes proteins
- stores vitamins and minerals
what is the main function of the pancreas in digestion? What does this action result in?
secreting digestive juice, which helps with breakdown of carbs, proteins and fats
other than secreting pancreatic juice, what does the pancreas do?
produces insulin and glucagon
what does the gallbladder do?
stores and concentrates bile
what are the five functions of the respiratory system?
- gas exchange btwn body and environment
- ventilation - process of breathing
- pH - bicarbonate related to Co2 levels in blood
- smell by directing air molecules
- sound production by providing air for larynx
what are the five main structures of the nose?
- nostrils
- nasal cavity
- olfactory receptors
- septum
- paranasal sinuses
what is the function of the nasal cavity and what is it lined with?
warms and humidifies air; lined with mucous membrane
where are the olfactory receptors and what is their function?
upper nasal cavity; responsible for sense of smell
what is the function of the nasal septum?
divides into two chambers
what are the 3 functions of the paranasal sinuses?
- lighten skull
- produce mucous
- regulate pressure in head
where are the paranasal sinuses?
adjacent to the nasal cavity
the double membrane around the lung
pleura
the two layers of the pleura and their attachment points
visceral - lung
parietal - thoracic cavity
Four functions of urinary system
- FILTRATION - removes metabolic waste from blood
- FLUIDS - maintain normal level of fluid and electrolytes, affects blood pressure
- pH - controls secretion of H+ and bicarbonate which controls pH of blood
- HORMONES - regulates red blood cell production and renin (blood pressure)
where do kidneys get their blood supply from?
abdominal aorta via right and left renal arteries
where does blood leave the kidneys after filtration?
via right and left renal veins, drain into inferior vena cava (IVC)
outer layer of the kidney and what it has
renal cortex; tons of nephrons
inner layer of the kidney and what it contains
renal medulla; collecting ducts that drain from nephrons
what is the final draining point of the kidneys before the ureter?
renal pelvis
what is the functional unit of the kidneys?
nephrons
two parts of a nephron
renal corpuscle and renal tubules
two parts of renal corpuscle
- glomerulus (blood vessels)
- glomerular capsule (surrounds blood vessels)
this part of nephron filters waste products and toxins from the blood
glomerulus
what part of a nephron reabsorbs water, electrolytes and other essential substances after the glomerulus filters them out?
renal tubule
where are the testes and what do they do?
oval-shaped organs in the scrotum; produce sperm
what are they two main structures in the testes?
- seminiferous tubules
- leydig cells
what do seminiferous tubules do?
produce sperm
what do leydig cells do?
produce testosterone
what is the function of the scrotum?
keeps testes at good temp for sperm production
where is the epididymis and what is its function?
back of each testis, stores sperm cells as they mature and learn how to swim
what is the vas deferens?
long, muscular tube that carries sperm from epididymis to ejaculatory duct
where are the seminal vesicles and what do they do?
two glands near base of bladder; produce fructose-rich fluid that nourishes and protects sperm during ejaculation
where is the prostate gland and what does it do?
below bladder (shaped like walnut); contributes to semen - helps sperm move, neutralize acidity in vagina and nourishes sperm
what are the 2 functions of the ovaries?
- produce and store egg cells
- release hormones
which hormones do the ovaries release?
estrogen and progesterone
What is the function of the fallopian tubes?
capture released egg during ovulation and provide pathway for sperm reaching egg
finger-like projections at end of fallopian tubes that help capture egg
fimbriae
what two organs is the uterus between?
bladder and rectum
what are the three layers of the uterus wall?
- endometrium (inner)
- myometrium (middle)
- perimetrium (outer)
which layer of the uterus thickens with blood vessels in preparation for pregnancy and then sheds during menstruation?
endometrium
which layer of the uterus is responsible for uterine contractions?
myometrium
lower end of uterus that projects into vagina
cervix
the ____ of the cervix dilates during childbirth to allow the baby to pass
os
the ___ is covered in a mucosal membrane; the amount of mucous changes throughout the menstrual cycle, which affects sperm passage
cervix