ch6 (the human body) Flashcards
1
Q
anatomy
A
focuses on the physical structure of the body and its systems
2
Q
physiology
A
examines the normal functions and activities of the biologic components in the body
3
Q
pathophysiology
A
the study of how normal physiologic processes are affected by disease
4
Q
umbilicus
A
the navel
5
Q
topographic anatomy
A
superficial landmarks of the body that serve as guides to the structures beneath them
6
Q
directional terminology ensures ________ and _________ between providers
A
consistency and clarity of communication
7
Q
anatomic position
A
patient is standing forward with arms at the side with palms facing forward
8
Q
coronal plane
A
frontal
-runs vertically
-divides body from front to back
9
Q
sagittal plane
A
lateral
-runs vertically
-divides the body from left to right
10
Q
midsagittal plane
A
midline
-divides the body into equal left and right halves
11
Q
transverse plane
A
axial
-runs horizontally
-divides the body into top and bottom sections
12
Q
what is the foundation of the human body?
A
cells
13
Q
cells that share a common function grow close to each other and form…
A
tissues
13
Q
groups of tissues that perform similar jobs form…
A
organs
13
Q
organs with similar functions form…
A
different body systems
14
Q
what functions does the skeletal system form?
A
- provide structural support to bear the body’s weight
- establish a framework to attach soft tissues and internal organs
- protect vital organs such as the heart and lungs
15
Q
skeletal system
A
the framework of the body composed of bones and other connective tissues
16
Q
axial skeleton
A
forms the longitudinal axis of the body
-comprised of the skull, vertebral column and the rib cage
17
Q
coccyx
A
the last 3-4 vertebrae of the spine
(the tail bone)
18
Q
thoracic cage
A
the chest or rib cage
19
Q
appendicular skeleton
A
comprised of the upper and lower extremities and the points by which they connect with the axial skeleton
-arms, legs, pelvis, and shoulder girdle
20
Q
joint
A
where two bones meet
21
Q
ligament
A
the fibrous tissues that connect bone to bone
-supports+strengthens joints
22
Q
cartilage
A
flexible tissues that covers and cushions the ends of articulating bones
23
cartilage forms the support structure of what system?
the skeletal system
24
what kind of tissue is cartilage?
smooth connective tissue
25
tendons
tissues that attach bone to muscle
26
what kind of tissue are tendons?
fibrous connective tissue
27
symphyses
joints that have grown together to form a very stable connection
(ex: cranial bones of the skull)
28
joint capsule
a fibrous sac that holds together the ends of a joint
29
sacroiliac joint
surrounded thick ligaments and have little motion
-connective point between the pelvis and vertebral column
30
articular cartilage
a thin layer that covers the ends of the bones in moving joints (synovial joints)
31
synovial membrane
found on the inner lining of the joint capsule
-responsible for making synovial fluid
32
synovial fluid
oil-like substance that allows the bones to glide over each other (instead of grating against each other, basically a lubricant)
33
ball-and-socket joint
allows internal+external rotation and bending
34
hinge joints
restricted motion
-only bending (flexion) and straightening (extension)
35
flexion
the bending of a joint
36
how many bones does the skull consist of?
28
36
extension
straightening of a joint
37
what are the 3 groups the skull is divided into?
1. the cranium
2. the facial bones
3. three small bones in the ear
38
the cranium comprises of...
frontal bones
temporal bones
parietal bones
occipital bone
ethmoid bone
sphenoid bone
39
cranium
part of the skull that encloses the brain and is composed of 8 bones
40
foramen magnum
a large opening at the base of the cranium
-serves as the passageway for the spinal cord to connect with the brain and descend into the spinal or vertebral column
41
maxillae
upper jawbones
(assist in the formation of the orbit, the nasal cavity, and the palate and hold the upper teeth)
42
mandible
the lower jawbone
43
zygomas
cheek bones
44
orbit
eye socket (not a bone but a cavity formed by the joining of multiple facial bones)
45
the upper third of the nose is made up of...
short nasal bones that form the bridge of the nose
45
2/3 of the nose consists of...
cartilage
45
there are ___ vertebrae in the vertebral column
33
45
vertebrae
the bones of the vertebral column
45
cervical spine
consisting of the first 7 vertebrae that lie in the neck
45
thoracic spine
12 vertebrae that lie between the cervical vertebrae and lumbar vertebrae
45
lumbar spine
lower part of the back formed by the lowest 5 confused vertebrae
45
sacrum
joins the iliac bones to the pelvis
consists of 5 fused sacral vertebrae
45
intervertebral disks
shock-absorbing structures that are in between vertebrae
45
what provides a limited degree of motion while preventing any extreme movement that might harm the spinal cord?
intervertebral disks
45
thorax
chest
45
what does the thorax comprise of?
heart
lungs
esophagus
great vessels (aorta, superior+inferior vena cavae)
45
sternum
breastbone
45
what are the 3 parts of the sternum?
1. manubrium
2. body
3. xiphoid process
45
manubrium
the upper quarter of the sternum
45
what's the largest part of the sternum?
the sternal body (body)
45
xiphoid process
the lower tip of the sternum
45
pectoral girdle
shoulder
45
what does the pectoral girdle comprise of?
the clavicle (collarbone) and the scapula (shoulder blade)
45
humerus
the supporting bone of the upper arm
46
radius
the bone on the thumb side of the forearm
47
what are the 2 bones that make up the forearm?
radius+ulna
48
ulna
the inner bone of the forearm on the pinky side
49
carpals
the bones that form the wrist
50
metacarpals
form the palm of the hand (extend from the carpals)
51
phalanges
bones of the fingers and toes
52
pelvic girdle
supporting structure for the legs (connects the legs to the axial skeleton)
53
what does the pelvic girdle consist of?
1. coxae
2. sacrum
3. coccyx
54
coxae
the hip bones
55
each coxa is formed by the fusion of what bones?
1. ilium
2. ischium
3. pubis
56
ilium
1 of 3 bones that fuse to form the pelvis ring
57
ischium
1 of 3 bones that fuse to form the pelvis ring
58
pubis
1 of 3 bones that fuse to form the pelvis ring
59
pubic symphysis
a joint between your left pelvic bone and your right pelvic bone
(helps your pelvis absorb some of the weight from your upper body before it travels to your lower body)
60
acetabulum
the socket of the hipbone, into which the head of the femur fits.
61
femur
thighbone
-longest and strongest bone in the body
62
femoral head
femur's rounded superior end
-forms the hip joint
63
greater trochanter
located at the top of the thighbone (femur) and is the most prominent and widest part of the hip
64
lesser trochanter
found on the medial side of the femur inferior to the femoral neck
65
patella
kneecap
66
what bones comprise the lower leg?
tibia and fibula
67
tibia
shinbone (larger of the two bones)
68
fibula
lies on the lateral side of the lower leg (the smaller bone)
69
malleolus
the ankle bone; a rounded bony prominence on either side of the ankle
70
the foot comprises the...
tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges
71
calcaneus
heel bone
72
talus
the large bone in the ankle
73
what articulates with the talus to form the ankle?
the distal ends of tibia and fibula
74
the bottom surface of the foot is called the...
plantar surface
75
the top of the foot is described as...
the dorsum or dorsal surface
76
what is essential to the formation of hard, resilient bones?
calcium
77
muscle
a form of tissue that facilitates movement
78
what are the 3 types of muscle?
1. skeletal
2. smooth
3. cardiac
79
skeletal muscle
attaches to the bone of the skeleton usually crosses at least one joint
-accounts for the bulk of human muscle mass
80
why is skeletal muscle sometimes called striated muscle?
because of its striped appearance
81
voluntary muscle
skeletal muscle
-another way to say skeletal muscle because: its movements are under control of the brain
82
involuntary muscle
smooth+cardiac muscle
the muscle over which a person has no conscious control
83
smooth muscle
found within blood vessels+intestines
84
cardiac muscle
can generate its own electrical impulses
the heart muscle
85
musculoskeletal system
the bones and voluntary muscles of the body
(musculoskeletal means partnership between bone and muscle)
86
biceps
the muscles of the upper arm
87
where are the biceps located?
anterior aspect of the humerus
88
triceps
3-headed muscle of the back of the arm that functions to straighten the elbow
89
what are the functions of the musculoskeletal system?
1. production of heat
2. protect internal organs
90
respiratory system
responsible for breathing and the exchange of oxygen and co2 that occurs in the lungs
91
where are the structures of the upper airway located?
anteriorly at the midline
92
what are the structures that are included in the upper airway?
1. nasopharynx
2. oropharynx
3. laryngopharynx
4. larynx (voice box)
93
nasopharynx
upper section of the pharynx that connects with the nasal cavity above the soft palate (root of the mouth)
94
what marks the transition point from the upper airway to lower airway?
epiglottis/vocal cords
95
trachea
wind pipe
96
what happens if there's any contact w/ the larynx?
a violent episode of coughing and spasm of the vocal chords (the larynx does not tolerate any solid or liquid materials)
97
epiglottis
a leaf-shaped flap that keeps food and liquid out of the trachea while permitting air to pass to the trachea
98
structures of the lower airway include...
trachea
bronchial tree
alveoli
lungs
99
thyroid cartilage
Adam's apple
anterior midline portion of the neck
100
cricoid cartilage
below the thyroid cartilage, forms the lower part of the larynx
101
circothyroid membrane
between the thyroid and cricoid cartilage (which make up the larynx)
102
the trachea is made up of...
rings of cartilage
103
what do rings of cartilage do in the trachea?
keep the trachea from collapsing when air moves into and out of the lungs
104
what lobes are in the right lung?
upper, middle, lower
105
what are the lobes in the left lung?
upper and lower
106
alveoli
air sacs of the lungs in which the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place
107
what are the functional units of the respiratory system?
alveoli
108
pleura
smooth tissue that covers each lung
109
visceral pleura
covering the lungs
110
parietal pleura
lining the chest wall
111
pleural space
between the parietal pleura and the visceral pleura (under normal conditions the space does not exist)
112
what is the primary muscle of breathing?
diaphragm
113
diaphragm
dome-shaped muscle that divides the thorax from the abdomen and is pierced by the esophagus
114
how does the diaphragm behave?
like an involuntary muscle
115
during inhalation what happens?
the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract
116
during exhalation what happens?
the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles relax
117
ventilation
the movement of air between the lungs and the environment (requires chest rise and fall)
118
respiration
is the process of gas exchange
-provides oxygen to cells and removes carbon dioxide
119
diffusion
where molecules from a high concentration go to a lower concentration
120
what controls breathing?
the brainstem
121
cerebrospinal fluid
fluid around the brain and spinal cord that cushion these structures and filter our impurities+toxins
122
the primary reason you breath is to...
lower your level of carbon dioxide
123
hypoxic drive
the backup system to control respiration
-senses drops in oxygen levels in the blood
124
the function of the medulla is to...
keep you breathing without having to think about it (controls the rhythm of breathing, initiates respiration, sets the base pattern for respirations...)
125
the pons
area in the brainstem that augment respiration during emotional or physical stress
126
tidal volume
the amount of air that is moved in+out of the lungs in one breath
127
inspiratory reserve volume
the deepest breath you can take after a normal breath
128
expiratory reserve volume
the amount of air that can be exhaled following a normal exhalation
129
residual volume
when gas remains in the lungs after exhalation to keep the lungs open
130
dead space
the portion of the respiratory system that has no alveoli and no gas exchange occurs
131
what is considered dead space?
mouth, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles
132
minute volume
a measure used to assess ventilation
-the amount of air that moves in and out in 1 minute
133
Minute volume=
respiratory rate x tidal volume
134
labored breathing
significant effort to breath (may require the use of accessory muscles in the chest, neck, abdomen)
135
agonal gasps
occasional gasping breaths
136
when do agonal gasps occur?
when the respiratory center in the brain continues to send signals to the breathing muscles
137
circulatory system
an arrangement of connected tubules that move blood, oxygen, nutrients, carbon dioxide and cellular waste throughout the body
138
what are the 2 circuits in the body?
systemic circulation and pulmonary circulation
139
systemic circulation
circuit in the body that carries oxygen-rich blood from the left ventricle through the body and back to the right atrium (outside of the heart and lungs)
140
pulmonary circulation
circuit in the lungs that carries oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle through the lungs and back to the left atrium
141
heart
a hollow muscle organ that pumps blood throughout the body
142
myocardium
cardiac muscle
143
the left side of the heart is more...
muscular
144
the septum...
divides the heart down the middle into right and left sides
145
atrium
upper chamber of the heart
146
ventricle
lower chamber of the heart
147
what does the left side of the heart do?
pump blood to the body (a high pressure pump)
148
what does the right side of the heart do?
supplies blood to the lungs (a low pressure pump)
149
the heart muscle's blood supply comes from the ...
aorta
150
the right side of the heart receives blood from the ....
veins of the body
151
pulmonary veins
the 4 veins that return oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium
152
valves prevent...
backflow of blood and keep it moving through the circulatory system
153
chordae tendineae
thin bands of fibrous tissue that attach to the valves in the heart and prevent them from inverting
154
heart rate
the number of heartbeats during a specific time (usually 1 minute)
155
stroke volume (SV)
the amount of blood moved in one beat
156
cardiac output (CO)
the amount of blood moved in 1 minute
157
Cardiac Output=
CO=HRxSV
Heart Rate x Stroke Volume
158
the arteries carry blood from the heart to...
all body tissues
159
tunica media
middle layer of the artery
160
aorta
the main artery on the left side of the heart
-carries oxygenated blood to the body
161
pulmonary artery
right side of the heart
-carried oxygen depleted blood to the lungs
162
arterioles
smallest branches of the artery leading to capillaries
163
pulse
pumping of blood out of the left ventricle into the major arteries
164
capillary vessels
divisions of the arterial system that allow contact between blood and the cells of tissues
165
superior vena cava
carries blood returning from the head, neck, shoulders, and upper extremities
166
inferior vena cava
blood from the abdomen, pelvis, and lower extremities pass through here
167
the superior and inferior venae cavae join at...
the right atrium of the heart
168
systemic vascular resistance (SVR)
the resistance to blood flow in all blood vessels expect pulmonary vessels
169
red blood cells
erythrocytes
-carry oxygen
170
white blood cells
leukocytes
-used in the body's immune system against infection
171
hemoglobin
found in red blood cells
-a protein that carries oxygen
172
platelets
used to form blood clots (to stop bleeding)
173
plasma
the liquid portion of the blood (contains nutrients)
174
where is the spleen located?
left upper quadrant (LUQ)
175
spleen
removes old/damaged red blood cells
filters blood
176
blood pressure (BP)
the force of circulating blood against the walls of the arteries
177
systole
the contraction of the heart, especially the ventricles
178
diastole
relaxation of the heart, especially the ventricles
179
sphygmomanometer
blood pressure cuff
-measures systolic and diastolic pressure
180
perfusion
the circulation of blood in an organ or tissue
181
hypoperfusion
inadequate perfusion/shock
182
shock
when the circulatory system doesn't provide enough circulation to maintain normal cellular functions (hypoperfusion)
183
mean arterial pressure (MAP)
the average arterial pressure during systole and diastole
184
MAP=
MAP= (HRxSV) x SVR
mean arterial pressure= (heart rate x stroke volume) x systemic vascular resistance
185
interstitial space
space between the cells
186
intracellular space
within the cell
187
hydrostatic pressure
when fluid pushes against the vessel walls to force fluid out of the capillary
188
oncotic pressure
the pressure of water to move into the capillary because of plasma proteins
189
epinephrine
adrenaline
190
norepinephrine
noradrenaline (sometimes used in the treatment of shock)
191
alpha adrenergic receptors
portions of the nervous system that can constrict blood vessels
192
beta adrenergic receptors
portions of the nervous system that when stimulated can cause an increase in the force of the contraction of the heart
193
adrenergic
related to the adrenal gland
194
the main function of the cardiovascular system is to...
perfuse blood throughout the body
195
nervous system
brain, spinal cord, and nerves
controls voluntary+involuntary processes in the body
196
central nervous system (CNS)
the brain and spinal cord
197
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
the nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord
198
somatic nervous system
regulates activities that we have voluntary control over (walking, talking, writing)
199
autonomic nervous system
control autonomic functions (digestion, dilation, constrictions of blood vessels)
200
brain
controls all the functions of the body, assembles and interprets the information received through the body's various scenes
201
what are the 3 major subdivisions of the brain?
1. cerebrum
2. cerebellum
3. brainstem
202
cerebrum
largest portion of the brain
-responsible for higher brain functions (what we see, hear, or feel; encoding and decoding speech; muscle movements, etc.)
203
neurons
nerve cells
204
each hemisphere of the brain has how many lobes?
4
frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital
205
control of one side of the body belongs to...
the hemisphere on the opposite side
206
cerebellum
beneath the cerebrum
-controls balance, muscle coordination, and posture
207
brain stem
acts as a relay center connecting the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord
-controls all voluntary and involuntary life-sustaining functions
208
the brainstem comprises the
midbrain, pongs, and medulla oblongata
209
midbrain
regulates the level of consciousness, reticular activating system, muscle tone, posture
210
pons
handles unconscious processes (sleep-wake cycle and breathing)
-middle portion of the brain stem
211
medulla oblongata
bottom-most part of the brain
-controls vital processes like heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure
212
reticular activating system (RAS)
a network of neurons in the upper brainstem
-regulates consciousness and level of arousal
213
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
filters out impurities and toxins and absorbs shocks
214
occipital lobe
vision+storage of visual memories
215
parietal lobe
sense of touch+texture; storage of those memories
216
temporal lobe
hearing, smell, and language; storage of sound and odor memories
217
frontal lobe
voluntary muscle control and storage of those memories
218
prefrontal area
judgement+predicting consequences of actions, abstract intellectual functions
219
limbic system
basic emotions, basic reflexes (chewing, swallowing)
220
diencephalon (thalamus)
relay center; filters important signals from routine signals
221
diencephalons (hypothalamus)
emotions, temperature control, interface with endocrine system (hormone control)
222
spinal cord
reflexes, relays information to and from body
-extension of the brainstem
223
cranial nerves
brainstem to head and neck; special peripheral nerves that connect directly to body parts
224
peripheral nerves
brain to spinal cord to body part; receive stimulus from body, send commands to body
225
the primary function of the spinal cord is to...
transmit messages between the brain and body
226
the autonomic nervous system is divided into...
the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
227
sympathetic nervous system
responsible for fight-or-flight that occurs under stress
228
parasympathetic nervous system
slows the body's activities or return the body to its resting state (involuntary functions)
229
what are the types of nerves in the peripheral nervous system?
sensory nerves and motor nerves
230
sensory nerves
transmits messages to the brain
231
motor nerves
carry information from the brain to the muscles
232
axons
extend to skeletal muscles
233
subcutaneous tissue
under the dermis, insulates the body
234
epidermis
outermost layer; skin's surface
235
epidermis function
1. protection
2. prevents microorganisms from getting into the body
3. prevents fluids from escaping
236
scalp
thick skin covering the cranium, has hair
237
germinal layer
innermost layer; makes new skin cells
238
stratum corneum
exposed surface layer of the skin (outermost layer)
239
dermis
under the epidermis
-contains hair follicles, sweat glands, nerve endings and blood vessels
240
sweat glands
secrete sweat in the dermal layer of the skin
241
hair follicles
small organs that produce hair
242
sebaceous glands
secretes sebum which seals the surface, water-proofs the skin and prevents it from drying out
243
mucous membranes
a protective barrier against bacterial invasion
-lines the body's cavities
244
mucus
a watery substance that lubricates and keeps body openings moist
245
what are the functions of the skin
1. protect the body from the environment
2. maintain normal body temp
3. transmit sensory info (touch, pain, pressure)
246
digestion
processing of food that nourishes the cells of the body
247
abdomen
contains organs of digestion+excretion
248
what organs are in the right upper quadrant?
liver
gallbladder
portion of the colon
249
what organs are in the left upper quadrant?
stomach
spleen
portion of the colon
250
what organs are in the right lower quadrant?
cecum
appendix
251
what organs are in the left lower quadrant?
sigmoid colon
252
cecum
1st part of the large intestine, into which the ileum opens
253
appendix
small structure attached to the lower border of the cecum (RLQ)
254
retroperitoneal
kidney+pancreas
-lie behind the abdominal cavity
255
the mouth consists of...
lips, cheeks, gums, teeth, tongue
256
salivary glands
produce saliva, keep the mouth and pharynx moist
257
oropharynx
tubular structure extends from the back of the mouth to the esophagus+trachea
258
esophagus
tube that extends from the pharynx to the stomach
-food and liquid go through this
259
chyme
substance that leaves the stomach
-combination of all eaten foods+stomach acids
260
pancreas
below the liver+stomach
-endocrine function (production of hormones to regulate sugar levels) and exocrine function (digestion)
261
liver
-right upper quadrant and extends into left upper quadrant
-detoxifies blood
-primary organ for the storage of sugar or starch, production of bile
262
bile ducts
connects the liver to the intestine
263
gall bladder
stores and concentrates bile from the liver
264
small intestine
has enzymes and mucus to aid in digestion
-consists of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
265
large intestine
-consists of the cecum, colon, and rectum
regulates water balance and eliminates waste
266
colon
absorb digested food and form stool
267
rectum
lowermost end of the colon
-stores quantities of feces until it's expelled
268
sphincters
in the rectum+anus
-voluntarily and automatically control the escape of solids, liquids, and gases from the digestive tract
269
enzymes
converts food into basic sugars, fatty acids, and amino acids
270
lymph
carries oxygen, nutrients and hormones to the cells and removes waste from the cells
271
lymph nodes
structure lymph
272
the lymphatic system helps to...
rid the body of toxins and other harmful materials
273
endocrine system
message and control system that integrates many body functions, such as releasing hormones
274
hormones
can have a stimulating or an inhibiting effect on the body's organs and systems
-regulate body functions
275
adrenal glands
above the kidneys
-produced epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol, etc.
276
urinary system
controls the discharge of certain waste materials filtered from the blood by the kidneys
277
the functions of the urinary system are...
1. control fluid balance int eh body
2. filter and eliminate wastes
3. control pH balance
278
kidneys
rid the blood of toxic waste products and control its balance of water and salts
279
renal pelvis
inside the kidney that collects urine and funnels into through the ureter into the bladder
280
ureter
carries urine from the kidneys to the bladder
281
peristalsis
wavelike contraction of smooth muscle to move urine to the bladder
282
urethra
conveys urine from the bladder to outside the body
283
genital system
controls the reproductive processes
284
prostate gland
secretes semen
-surround the male urethra
285
seminal vesicles
storage sacs for sperm and seminal fluids
286
testicle
produces male hormones and develops sperm
287
ovaries
produce sex hormones and cells for reproduction
288
Fallopian tube
connect with the uterus and carry the ovum into the uterus
289
vagina
birth canal
-connects the uterus to the vulva
290
semen
fluid ejaculated from the penis, contains sperm
291
oxygen is brought to the cells via...
circulatory and respiratory system
292
metabolism
turning nutrients into energy
293
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
used in energy metabolism and storage
294
aerobic metabolism
metabolism that can proceed only in the presence of oxygen
295
anaerobic metabolism
takes place in the absence of oxygen; creates lactic acid
296
lactic acid
causes muscle burning (anaerobic metabolism)
297
what is the normal pH for humans?
7.35-7.45
298
respiratory compromise
the inability of the body to move gas effectively which can lead to hypoxia
299
hypoxia
decreased level of oxygen in the body
300
hypercapnia
increased level of carbon dioxide in the body
301
V/Q ratio
ventilation/perfusion
describes how much gas is moving effectively (ventilation) through the lungs and how much blood is flowing around the alveoli where gas exchange (perfusion) occurs
302
shock
systemic hypo perfusion
-when organs+tissues don't receive enough blood and oxygen
303
cellular metabolism
inability to properly use oxygen and glucose at the cellular level
304
brachial artery
supplies blood to the arm
305
carotid artery
supplies blood to the head and brain
306
dorsalis pedis artery
artery on the anterior surface of the food
307
femoral artery
major artery of the thigh
308
frontal bones
bones of the cranium that form the forehead
309
radial artery
major artery in the forearm
