Biotechnology and Microscopy

Question 1

Uses visible light and optical lenses to magnify and view a sample

Answer 1

optical microscopy

Question 2

Uses a focused beam of electrons to magnify and view a sample

Answer 2

electron microscopy

Question 3

Optical microscopy allows us to see most ___ and __ cells, most ___, and ___. However, to see ___, ___, and -___ electron microscopy is needed. Some long ___ are visible with the naked eye

Answer 3

animal plant, bacteria, organelles, viruses, ribosomes, proteins, neurons

Question 4

Compound microscope is a type of ___ microscope in which visible light is focused on a thin -_ of the sample to view it in ___. It is used for the observation of __, __ and ___. ___ can be used for enhanced viewing, While very ___ single cell layers do not need this, ___ samples require it, and in the process will kill the sample

Answer 4

light, slice, 2D, cells, tissues, organisms, staining, thin, thicker

Question 5

fluorescence microscopy uses a __ __ to tag certain structures. It can be useful to locate an ___ or where __ ___ is within a cell. This can be used on ____ cells in real time, for example to look at ___ during mitosis

Answer 5

fluorescent marker, organelle, protein expression, living, chromosomes

Question 6

In scanning electron microscopy, a ___ image of the sample’s ____ is produced in very high resolution, allowing us to see the _____ and ____ of small structures. It is ideal for viewing the __ ___ of cells, tissues and molecules, but the sample must first be ____ and ___ before viewing, which will kill it

Answer 6

3D, surface, texture, shape, external surface, dehydrated coated

Question 7

Transmission electron microscopy, uses an electron beam passed through a very ___ section of sample to produce a high magnification ___ image. It allows for high resolution viewing of ____ ___, and even inside ____. It has the highest ___ of all microscopes. However, the preparation of the sample is ___, ____ and kills it

Answer 7

thin, 2D, internal structures, organelles, magnification, time-consuming, expensive

Question 8

Using a differential centrifuguation to separate a cell’s contents based on density and size

Answer 8

cell fractionation

Question 9

In cell fractionation, first _____ is needed, where cells are broken apart with the cell contents without a _____. Then the homgenate is spun at a ___ speed which creates a dense ___ ____ of ___. Then the layer is removed and the sample is spun on ___ speed producing a new pellet layer of ____ and ____. This repeats, and until the smallest cell components like the ___ and ___ remain as the pellet layer

Answer 9

homogenization, membrane, low, pellet layer, nuclei, medium, mitochondria, chloroplasts, ribosomes, viruses

Question 10

Transfer of genes from generation to the next (e.g. sexual / asexual reproduction, mitosis)

Answer 10

vertical gene transfer

Question 11

transfer of genes between different organisms

Answer 11

horizontal gene transfer

Question 12

___ is a type of horizontal gene transfer in which DNA is directly transferred via a biological bridge between two organisms. This occurs between ____ that have a ____, which connects the cytoplasm of one bacteria to another

Answer 12

conjugation, bacteria, pilus

Question 13

A type of horizontal gene transfer in which DNA is introduced into a genome by a virus

Answer 13

transduction

Question 14

___ is when a cell absorbs DNA from the surroundings and incorporates it into their DNA. This can be conditioned via ___ ___ or _____

Answer 14

transformation, heat shocking, electroporating

Question 15

DNA containing different segments from multiple sources

Answer 15

recombinant DNA

Question 16

Recombinant DNA technology uses __ __ to cut up sequence specific sites called ___ ___, which are nucleic acid sequences that read in both the __ and __ direction. Restriction enzymes can produce ___ ends where there is overhang of nucleotides, which is more ___, and ___ ends, where there is no overhang

Answer 16

restriction enzymes, palindromic sequences, 5’->3’, 3’->5’, sticky, common, blunt

Question 17

in recombinant DNA technology, if the ___ restriction enzyme is used to cut pieces of different sources of DNA, the ___ __ ___ of two DNA pieces can bind, creating a DNA molecule from multiple sources. Incubation with __ ___ will seal the phosphodiester backbone

Answer 17

same, unpaired sticky ends, DNA ligase

Question 18

Creating a map of known restriction enzyme cut sites within a sequence of DNA to know where to cut and what genes are nearby

Answer 18

restriction mapping

Question 19

the location of __ ___ on human DNA varies between individuals, meaning enzymes will create unique fragments of different ___ based on the individual. This concept is referred to as ___ __ __ and is useful in __ ___, when a DNA in a crime scene can be used to match up to an individual

Answer 19

restriction sites, sizes, restriction fragment polymorphisms, DNA fingerprinting

Question 20

__ ___ __ are single nucleotide differences in the human genome, one in roughly every ______ nucleotides. This may be found near _____ ___, and thus can be used as genetic markers for _____ to certain diseases

Answer 20

single nucleotide polymorphisms, 1000-2000, disease-associated alleles, susceptibility

Question 21

__ ___ can be used to separate DNA/RNA/proteins based on __ and __. It is made of a gel medium soaked in a _ ____ ___ solution hooked up to a machine that provides a negative charge on one end and ___ charge on the other

Answer 21

gel electrophoresis, charge, size, electrically conductive buffer, positively

Question 22

The sample used in gel electrophoresis is loaded in the ___ at the ___ end. Then a ___ is provided by the machine, and DNA molecules which are _____ charged, will move towards the ____ side. The ___ DNA molecules move further than the ___ DNA molecules

Answer 22

wells, negative, current, negatively, positive, shorter, larger

Question 23

After electrophoresis, DNA can be ____ or probed using a _____ labelled __ strand nucleic acid to identify the location of the specific sequence

Answer 23

sequenced, radioactively, single

Question 24

Gel electrophoresis is similar but because they have a strong ___ structure, ___ must be added prior to loading which ___ the protein into a linear polypeptide chain and adds a uniformly _____ charge proportional to the size of the molecule

Answer 24

folded, SDS, denatures, negative

Question 25

When nucleic acids of one strand form base pairs with complementary nucleic acids on a different strand

Answer 25

nucleic acid hybridization

Question 26

A DNA probe is often labelled ___ or ___, then ___ so that it is single stranded. Then the target strand is also denatured, and if it is present, the probe can ____ to it. The detectable tag can be used to ____ the target strand. This technique is used in _____ ____

Answer 26

radioactively, fluorescently, denatured, hybridize, locate, in-situ hybridization

Question 27

In situ hybridization, the probe is labelled with a ___ dye, and hybridized with the ___ of interest, testing the location and presence of ___ ___ in an organism.

Answer 27

fluorescent, mRNA, gene expression

Question 28

DNA or ___ ___ ___ sequencing is used to determine the number of __ __ in a DNA or RNA molecule and their ____

Answer 28

dideoxy chain termination, base pairs, sequence,

Question 29

In DNA sequencing, first the desired DNA strand is ____ into a single strand form. Then it is mixed with a ____ which provides the _____ necessary to begin DNA synthesis. Finally the sample is incubated with ___, ___, and fluorescently tagged _____

Answer 29

denatured, primer, 3’OH, DNA polymerase, deoxyribonucleotides, dideoxy-ribonucleotides

Question 30

The _____ unlike deoxyribonucleotides, lack a ____ and thus cannot form a ____ bond with another nucleotide. This is the ___ ___ nucleotide

Answer 30

dideoxyribonucleotides, 3’OH, phosphodiester, replication terminating

Question 31

In DNA sequencing, hundreds of DNA synthases continue, each ___ stopping at a specific __ ___. Ultimately, a set of labelled strands of every possible ___ is created. Therefore, we have a fluorescent indicator on every single ____

Answer 31

randomly, fluorescent ddNTP, length, nucleotide

Question 32

In DNA sequencing, after the strands are made, the labelled strands are separated via ___ ___ ___ from the shortest to longest strand. This while mean the ____ strand with only ___ nucleotide will pass through first. Eventually it is possible to get the ___ of the nucleotides from technology that detects the order of the __ __

Answer 32

capillary gel electrophoresis, first, 1, order, fluorescent colours

Question 33

In reverse transcription an enzyme called ____ ____ is used to synthesize DNA molecules off an ___ template. This is makes a complementary _____ with no ___. Some viruses like __ and ___ use this to replicate their genome and proliferate in the host

Answer 33

reverse transcriptase, cRNA, cDNA, introns, HIV, hepatitis B

Question 34

Reverse transcriptional is used to make __ __ in bacteria. the cDNA is needed because prokaryotic RNA does not contain ___, and thus have no mechanism to remove them. The cDNA allows for the desired gene to be efficiently transcribed and ___ after insertion. mRNA itself cannot be used because it is unstable and ____

Answer 34

recombinant DNA, introns, translated, short-lived

Question 35

Technique used for the amplification of DNA

Answer 35

polymerase chain reaction

Question 36

In PCR, a double stranded DNA is first ___ to separate into strands, thus requiring a __ ___ ___. In ____ as the temperature cools down, the primers can attach to separate strands. In ____, the temperature is raised again, and heat resistant ___ synthesizes complementary strands. This is usually done by ___ ___ which is more stable under heat. This replication process occurs for ___ strands of DNA, multiple times, ___ increasing the number of DNA molecules

Answer 36

heated, heat resistant polymerase, annealing, primers, elongation, polymerase, prokaryotic polymerase, both, exponentially

Question 37

DNA microarray assay is used to monitor the expression of ___ groups of ___ across the entire genome. This is useful for seeing which genes are ___ in different tissues or at different stages of ____

Answer 37

large, genes, transcribed, development

Question 38

DNA microassay contains many wells containing __ ___ pieces of DNA, all unique. Then ____ ___ made from the ___ of target cells are loaded into the wells to hybridize. This allows us to see what genes are expressed in ___ vs ___ cells, as the cells containing the genes of interest will be ___ labelled. It can also be used to look at different __ of cells

Answer 38

short single, fluorescent cDNA, mRNA, healthy, cancerous, fluorescently, types

Question 39

blotting technique used to look for specific genes in DNA fragments

Answer 39

southern blot

Question 40

blotting technique used to look for specific genes in RNA molecules

Answer 40

northern blotting

Question 41

Blotting technique used to identify proteins

Answer 41

western blotting

Question 42

In southern blotting, the DNA is first extracted from a biological sample and ___ via __ ___. Then the DNA fragments are separated according to their ___ via ___ ___. The fragments are then transferred to ____ ___ ___ by blotting paper. This paper is very thin, helping in visualization, and easily allows for a DNA probe with a ____ ___ or ____ tag to bind because it is ___. Any DNA fragments containing __ ___ can be detected

Answer 42

cut, restriction enzymes, size, gel electrophoresis, nitrocellulose filter paper, radioactive, fluorescent, chemical, porous, complementary sequences

Question 43

allows for the visual identification of proteins

Answer 43

immunofluorescent staining

Question 44

In immunofluorescent staining a __ ___ binds to the protein of interest. Then a ___ __ containing a ___ __ will bind to the secondary antibody. Using microscopy, the tag can be visually ___ to detect the protein of interest in a ___ sample

Answer 44

primary antibody, secondary antibody, fluorescent tag, located, live

Question 45

in vivo mutagenesis helps determine the ____ of a gene. This introduces specific ___ into a gene, and observe ____ differences. These differences may be a function of a missing __ ___. A frequently used example is ___ ___

Answer 45

function, mutation, phenotypic. normal protein, knockout mice

Question 46

similar process to in-vivo mutagenesis but only studies the effects of the mutation outside of a living organism

Answer 46

in-vitro mutagenesis

Question 47

__ _____ analyzes genomic sequences to identify ___ ___ and their functions. it utilizes ___ __ to compare known sequences

Answer 47

genome annotation, protein-coding regions, computer databases

Question 48

The introduction of genes into an afflicted individual for therapeutic purposes

Answer 48

gene therapy

Question 49

in gene therapy, first the cell with the genetic disease is ____, then loaded into a __ ___, which will infect the cell with the good genes. These cells then are ___ into the person

Answer 49

isolated, retroviral vector, reinjected

Question 50

Animals which have had a gene introduced from the genome of another individual - often another species

Answer 50

transgenic animals

Question 51

Transgenic animals can be used to study the __ of genes, or in drug testing to measure __ ___ and replicate __.

Answer 51

function, drug efficacy, diseases

Question 52

In transgenic animals, the cells of both animals of interest are first ___. Then the gene of interest to be insert is taken and placed ____ to the gene that codes for what will express the gene of interest. Then the nucleus is injected into an ____, and then implanted

Answer 52

isolated, adjacent, embryo

Question 53

collection of cloned DNA pieces from a genome; used to locate a gene of interest

Answer 53

genomic library

Question 54

To form the genomic library, first the genome of interest is ___, and then it is cut leaving __ ___ with a __ ___. then a _____ or ____ DNA is cut with the same restriction enzymes. These plasmids are designed to include an __ ____ gene. Then the DNA and plasmids are sealed together using __ __.

Answer 54

isolated, sticky ends, restriction enzymes, plasmids, circular, antibiotic resistance, DNA ligase

Question 55

In forming a genomic library, the ___ DNA is inserted into a bacteria by ____. This can be done via ___ __ and ___, or by ____. Then the bacteria are allowed to undergo repeated ___ __ to produce a population of __ ___ cells with the recombinant DNA. The genome library can now be ___ again for use or experimentation

Answer 55

recombinant, transformation, heat shock, CaCl2, electroporation, cell divisions, recombinant plasmid, isolated

Question 56

When a cell is exposed to a brief electrical impulse, creating temporary pores in the plasma membrane

Answer 56

electroporation

Question 57

When the temperature is increased then rapidly cooled, increasing the membrane permeability

Answer 57

heat shock

Question 58

The plasmids used in genomic libraries contain __ __ genes, to do a test. All the bacteria are treated with an ____, and the bacteria that don’t survive did not successfully accept the ___, whereas the ones that did have are called the __ ___

Answer 58

antibiotic resistance, antibiotic, plasmid, recombinant

Question 59

producing an organism that is genetically identical to the parent

Answer 59

cloning

Question 60

In cloning first, the ____ from the ___ cell of an organism is isolated. Then, an ___ ___ is removed from the female and it’s nucleus is removed, producing an ___ egg. Then, ______ ____allows for the nucleus and egg to merge. This will form an ___ that will undergo cell division. This is ___ in the uterus of a surrogate mother, and the baby clone is birthed

Answer 60

nucleus, somatic, unfertilized egg, enucleated, electric shock, embryo, implanted

Question 61

The ___ and the ___ ___ contributes no genetic information to the clone. The first clone made was of a ___

Answer 61

egg, surrogate mother, sheep

Question 62

Pasteur’s __ ___ flask experiment proved that ___ ___ ___ was invalid, and that life could only be created from ___ organisms

Answer 62

swan neck, spontaneous life generation, existing

Question 63

In pasteur’s experiment, the a broth was kept in a __ ___ flask, which prevented microorganisms in the __ from being able the enter the solution. Then the solution was __ to kill all the ___. When the curved neck was remained on, there were ___ microorganisms, while if the neck was kept off, the microorganisms grew due to entering from the air.

Answer 63

curved neck, air, boiled, microorganisms no

Question 64

In Griffith’s experiment, two strains of ____ were injected into mice. The ___ strain lacked a protective capsule and there were destroyed by the mice’s immune system before it could kill it, therefore being ____. The ___ strain had a protective capsule that shielded it from the immune system, causing it to be ____.

Answer 64

bacteria, rough, non-virulent, smooth, virulent

Question 65

In Griffith’s experiment, when S bacteria were ___ and injected, it would not harm the mouse. However, if it was heat killed and then added to a solution of living ___ bacteria and then injected, this would kill the mouse. This is because the R bacteria ____ the S ____, and this allowed it to produce the __ __ that shielded it from the immune system. This led to the discovery of the term _____

Answer 65

heat-killed, R, absorbed, DNA, protective capsule, transformation

Question 66

In Avery-Macleod-MacCarty’s experiment, they expanded on Griffith’s experiment by heat killing the S cells, removing the ___ and ___, and separating the solution. In each separate solution they added digestive enzymes like ___, ___ and ____ to get rid of proteins, RNA, and DNA. When ____ was added to the S bacteria, the R cells were not transformed. This led to the conclusion that ___ was responsible for coding for the protective capsule

Answer 66

lipids, sugars, protease, RNase, DNase, DNase, DNA

Question 67

A virus that infects bacteria

Answer 67

bacteriophage

Question 68

Hershey and Chase radioactively labelled a bacteriophage called ____ ___with either a ____ to detect proteins, or with ____ to detect DNA. Then they let the bacteriophage infect a bacteria, and observed that only the radioactive ___ appeared inside the bacteria, confirming that DNA was the ___ ___ of the virus. This is because when a virus injects its information into a cell, it discards its ___ ___ outside of the cell which ___

Answer 68

phage T2, sulfur, phosphorous, DNA, genetic material, protein coat, dissolves

Question 69

in meselson and stahl’s experiment, they grew ___ in a medium with nucleotides containing ____ a heavy isotope of nitrogen. The bacteria would then form ___ with this isotope. Then the bacteria were transferred to a medium with ___, where they would incorporate the nucleotides with the regular isotope. As they replicated,____ synthesized strands would have the lighter isotope while the ___ strands would have the heavier isotope

Answer 69

e. coli, n15, DNA, n14, newly, original

Question 70

In meselson and stahl’s experiment, when the DNA was ____, the resulting DNA was not as __ as the original DNA but not as ___ as the 14N DNA, implying ___ ___. When a second round of replication occurred, there was a DNA strand with only ____, and a ____ combination DNA, further proving semi conservative replication

Answer 70

dense, light, semiconservative, N14, N14-N15

Question 71

In Gurdon’s _ ___ experiment, an ____ cell was taken from a frog and it’s ___ was removed. Then this cell was fused with a ___ ____ cell. The egg was then stimulated to undergo ____ _____, which gave rise to a new frog. This proved that fully ___ cells do not lose their genetic information, they retain the full ___

Answer 71

nuclear transfer, intestinal, nucleus, enucleated egg, embryonic development, differentiated, genome